Optimization of Infrared Heating Conditions for Precooked Cowpea Production Using Response Surface Methodology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Experimental Design
2.3. Moisture Conditioning and Infrared Heating Pre-Treatment of Cowpea Seeds
2.4. Physicochemical and Functional Analyses
2.4.1. Bulk Density
2.4.2. Water Absorption Capacity
2.4.3. Soluble Pectin
2.5. Total Phenolic, Total Flavonoid Content, and Antioxidant Capacity Assays
2.5.1. Extraction Procedure
2.5.2. UHPLC Identification and Quantification of Phenolic Compounds
2.5.3. Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.5.4. Total Flavonoid Content (TFC)
2.5.5. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) Assay
2.6. Antinutritional Factors (ANFs) Analyses
2.6.1. Total Phytic Acid Content
2.6.2. Oxalate Content
2.7. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Modeling and Optimization of the Infrared-Induced Physicochemical Perturbations of Cowpea
3.2. Model Validation, Adequacy, and Factor Effects
3.3. Multi-Response Numerical Optimization
3.4. Pectin Solubility
3.5. Total Phenolic, Total Flavonoid Content, and Antioxidant Capacity
3.6. Level of Individual Phenolic Compounds
3.7. Phytate and Oxalates
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Samples Availability
References
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Levels | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factors | Codes | −α | −1 | 0 | 1 | +α |
Moisture level (%) | X1 | 32.6 | 40 | 45 | 54 | 57.3 |
Infrared temperature (°C) | X2 | 114.7 | 130 | 150 | 170 | 185.3 |
Infrared time (min) | X3 | NA * | 2 | 8 | 14 | 18.5 |
Experimental Runs | Moisture | Temperature | Time | Bulk Density (g/mL) | WAC (g/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 40.00 | 130.00 | 2.00 | 0.67 | 125.54 |
2 | 40.00 | 130.00 | 14.00 | 0.64 | 114.66 |
3 | 40.00 | 170.00 | 2.00 | 0.66 | 126.83 |
4 | 40.00 | 170.00 | 14.00 | 0.62 | 126.78 |
5 | 54.00 | 130.00 | 2.00 | 0.62 | 126.78 |
6 | 54.00 | 130.00 | 14.00 | 0.63 | 99.96 |
7 | 54.00 | 170.00 | 2.00 | 0.62 | 125.85 |
8 | 54.00 | 170.00 | 14.00 | 0.60 | 102.39 |
9 (C) | 45.00 | 150.00 | 8.00 | 0.62 | 103.38 |
10 | 32.65 | 150.00 | 8.00 | 0.67 | 118.06 |
11 | 57.35 | 150.00 | 8.00 | 0.61 | 95.45 |
12 | 45.00 | 114.72 | 8.00 | 0.64 | 125.62 |
13 | 45.00 | 185.28 | 8.00 | 0.60 | 103.84 |
15 | 45.00 | 150.00 | 18.58 | 0.62 | 98.55 |
16 (C) | 45.00 | 150.00 | 8.00 | 0.62 | 108.60 |
Coefficient | Bulk Density | WAC |
---|---|---|
β0 | 0.74 | 1248.00 |
β1 | −0.00 | −18.88 |
β2 | 0.00 | −9.08 |
β3 | −0.01 | −4.17 |
β11 | 0.00 | 0.17 |
β22 | −0.00 | 0.03 |
β33 | 0.00 | 0.36 |
β12 | −0.00 | 0.02 |
β13 | 0.00 | −0.02 |
β23 | −0.004 | −0.02 |
R2 (%) | 95.08% | 92.15% |
R2adj (%) | 93.56% | 89.71% |
Residual | 0.01 | 4.09 |
Bulk Density | WAC | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Term | Effect | p-Values * | Effect | p-Values * |
Linear effects (L) | ||||
Constant | - | 0.000 | - | 0.000 |
Moisture | −0.029 | 0.000 | −2.258 | 0.186 |
Temperature | −0.018 | 0.000 | −6.881 | 0.000 |
Time | −0.019 | 0.000 | −24.249 | 0.000 |
Quadratic effects (Q) | ||||
Moisture × Moisture | 0.006 | 0.329 | 16.650 | 0.001 |
Temperature × Temperature | −0.006 | 0.347 | 21.660 | 0.000 |
Time × Time | 0.006 | 0.404 | 25.710 | 0.000 |
Interactive effects (I) | ||||
Moisture × Temperature | −0.002 | 0.368 | 5.466 | 0.002 |
Moisture × Time | 0.014 | 0.000 | −1.871 | 0.269 |
Temperature × Time | −0.009 | 0.001 | −4.026 | 0.022 |
Samples | ||
---|---|---|
Control | Treated (Opt) | |
TPC (mg CE/g) | 1.10 b (0.02) | 0.47 a (0.04) |
TFC (mg CE/g) | 4.23 b (0.08) 1 | 1.66 a (0.07) |
Antioxidant properties | ||
FRAP (mg GAE/g) | 8.21 b (0.44) | 2.32 a (0.01) |
No | Phenolic Compounds | Control Sample (µg/g) | Treated (opt) (µg/g) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Kaempferol | 6.60 a (0.09) | 2.80 a (0.31) 1 |
2 | Luteolin | 6.52 a (0.01) | 11.32 b (0.08) |
3 | Ferulic acid | 5.08 a (0.54) | 22.96 b (1.23) |
4 | Taxifolin | 979.12 b (18.67) | 494.24 a (1.96) |
5 | Apigenin | 2.16 a (0.13) | 3.80 a (0.49) |
6 | Quercetin | 1.20 a (0.11) | 0.68 a (0.03) |
7 | p-Coumaric acid | 83.84 a (4.95) | 52.00 a (1.46) |
8 | Sinapic acid | 92.96 b (0.52) | 26.72 a (0.88) |
9 | Caffeic acid | 289.76 b (0.42) | 130.80 a (1.04) |
10 | Gallic acid | 169.64 a (0.23) | 328.48 b (1.75) |
11 | Vanillic acid | 349.68 a (1.04) | 684.44 a (4.18) |
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Ogundele, O.M.; Gbashi, S.; Oyeyinka, S.A.; Kayitesi, E.; Adebo, O.A. Optimization of Infrared Heating Conditions for Precooked Cowpea Production Using Response Surface Methodology. Molecules 2021, 26, 6137. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26206137
Ogundele OM, Gbashi S, Oyeyinka SA, Kayitesi E, Adebo OA. Optimization of Infrared Heating Conditions for Precooked Cowpea Production Using Response Surface Methodology. Molecules. 2021; 26(20):6137. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26206137
Chicago/Turabian StyleOgundele, Opeolu M., Sefater Gbashi, Samson A. Oyeyinka, Eugenie Kayitesi, and Oluwafemi A. Adebo. 2021. "Optimization of Infrared Heating Conditions for Precooked Cowpea Production Using Response Surface Methodology" Molecules 26, no. 20: 6137. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26206137