Toxicological Assessment of Roasted Coffee Silver Skin (Testa of Coffea sp.) as Novel Food Ingredient
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Compositional and Toxicological Data on Coffee Silver Skin
3.1. Description of Coffee Silver Skin
3.1.1. Macro Nutrients
3.1.2. Vitamins and Minerals
3.1.3. Plant Secondary Compounds
3.1.4. Contaminants
3.2. Use History and Intake
3.3. Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion and Nutritional Data
3.3.1. Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion
3.3.2. Nutritional Data
3.4. Toxicological Data
3.4.1. Human Skin
3.4.2. Acute Toxicology
3.4.3. Genotoxicity and Other Toxicological Relevant Cell Lines
3.4.4. Other Cell Lines
3.4.5. Chronic Exposure
3.4.6. Other Animal Data
3.4.7. Human Data
3.4.8. Allergenicity
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
14C-FRU | C-Fructose |
3H-DG | H-Deoxy-D-Glucose |
3T3-L1 | Mouse preadipocytes |
ATP | Adenosine triphosphate |
bw | Body weight |
Caco-2 | Human intestinal epithelial cells |
DGE | Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung |
DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid |
EFSA | European Food Safety Authority |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
EU | European Union |
EtOH | Ethanol |
GAE | Gallic acid equivalent |
GPx | Glutathione peroxidase |
GR | Gutathione reductase |
HaCaT | Human immortalized non-tumorigenic keratinocyte cell line |
HCE | Human corneal epithelial |
HepG2 | Human hepatocellular carcinoma cells |
HFF-1 | Human foreskin fibroblasts |
IC50 | Inhibitory concentration 50 |
IEC-6 | Rat small intestine epithelial cells |
ICP-MS | Inductively Coupled Plasma—Mass Spectrometry |
INS-1E | Rat insulinoma cell line |
INSR | Insulin receptor signal transduction |
LD50 | Lethal Dose 50 |
LDH | Lactate dehydrogenase |
mM | Millimol |
MeOH | Methanol |
mRNA | Messenger ribonucleic acid |
MTT | 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromid |
OECD | The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |
ORAC | Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity |
PGC-1 | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha |
POP | Phytosterol oxidation products |
RAW264.7 M | Murine-leukemic monocyte-macrophage cell line |
RE | Rutin equivalent |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SH-SY5Y | Human neuroblastoma cell line |
TWI | Tolerable weekly intake |
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Nutrient | Amount (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Fats a | 1.6–3.0 | [3,27,28,29,30,31,32] |
Protein | 7.1–22.0 | [3,29,31,33] |
Carbohydrates | 9.5–14.5 (70.2) b | [31,34] |
fiber (total) | 34.7–68.5 | [28,29,31,34,35] |
– soluble | 8.2–11.0 | [3,29] |
– insoluble | 46.0–56.0 | [3,29] |
Moisture | 2.0–7.0 | [30,31,36] |
Ashes | 5.4–9.5 | [3,29,30] |
Ingredient | Amount | Possible Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Caffeine | 0.65–1% | stimulant, diuretic, antioxidant | [3,31] |
Polyphenols, including: | 1–6 mg GAE /g | antibacterial, enzyme inhibitory, antioxidant | [33,47,48] |
Chlorogenic acids | 1.1–6.8% | antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory | [49] |
Vannilic acid | 0.088–0.147% | antioxidant, flavouring | [27] |
Syringic acid | 0.009–0.036% | antioxidant | [27] |
Flavonoids, including: | 0.18–2.35 mg RE /g | antioxidant | [46] |
Rutin | 0.001–0.005% | antioxidant | [27] |
Kaempferol- 3-glucoside | 0.003–0.007% | antioxidant | [27] |
Melanoidins | 17–23% | antioxidant, anticancer, anticholesterol | [47] |
Impurity | Amount | Reference | Regulatory Standard |
---|---|---|---|
Lead | <1–2.63 mg/kg | [35,42,44] | 0.2 mg/kg (wheat) [55] |
Mercury | 0.05 mg/kg | [42,44] | TWI 4 g/kg bw [58] |
Cadmium | 0.07 mg/kg | [42,44] | 0.1 mg/kg (wheat) [56] |
5-Hydroxymethylfurfural | 0.57 mg/kg | [36] | Threshold 1.5 g/person/d [57] |
Furfuryl alcohol | n.d. | [3] | Threshold 1.5 g/person/d [57] |
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | traces | [44] | 1 g/kg Benzo(a)pyrene in babyfood [59] |
Furan | n.d. | [44] | Threshold 1.5 g/person/d [57] |
Methylfuran | n.d. | [44] | Threshold 1.5 g/person/d [57] |
Pesticides | n.d. | [44] | depending on individual substance |
Acrylamide | 11.42 g/L (Extract) | [3,35,40,60] | Benchmark: |
<20–161 g/kg | 400 g/g | ||
720 g/kg | (coffee) [61] | ||
Phytosterol oxidation products (POP) | 2.1–8.8 mg/kg | [23] | safe intake: 0.64 mg/kg bw/day [62] |
Ochratoxin A | <4 g/kg | [63] | 5 g/kg (coffee) [59] |
18.7–34.4 g/kg | [64] | ||
Aflatoxins | B1 < 0.20 ppb | [34] | 2 g/kg (wheat) [59] |
B2 < 0.06 ppb | Sum of all | ||
G1 < 0.20 ppb | 4 g/kg (wheat) [59] | ||
G2 < 0.06 ppb |
Source | Concentration [%] | Estimated Intake of Source [g/kg bw/Day] | Maximum Worst-Case Intake from Source [g/kg bw/Day] |
---|---|---|---|
Flat Bread | 5 | 0.89 | 0.045 |
Cakes | 7 | 0.83 | 0.058 |
Biscuits | 3 | 0.60 | 0.018 |
Cookies | 5 | 0.99 | 0.050 |
Yoghurt | 6 | 2.99 | 0.179 |
Burger Patties | 3 | 0.79 | 0.024 |
Total assumed worst-case intake | 0.374 g/kg bw/day |
Component | Amount | Evaluation |
---|---|---|
Macro nutrients | ||
Fats | 1.6–3.0% [3,27,28,29,30,31,32] | Low fat food |
Carbohydrates | 9.5–14.5% [31,34] | Low carbohydrate food |
Proteins | 15.0–22.0% [3,29,31] | All essential amino acids except methionine [3], relevant protein source |
Fiber | 34.7–68.5% [28,29,31,34,35] | Fiber source for nutrition, reduces deficiency |
Micro nutrients | ||
Vitamin E | 4.17 mg/100 g [36,41] | No relevant part of reference dose [43] |
Zinc | 0.7–2.2 mg/100 g [29,35,36,44] | No relevant part of reference dose [73] |
Potassium | 5000 mg/100 g [29,36,44] | Relevant amount of daily dose, no concern [73] |
Calcium | 500–1000 mg/100 g [29,36,44] | Relevant amount of daily dose, reduces deficiency [73] |
Magnesium | 200–2000 mg/100 g [29,36,44] | Above average intake, no concern [73] |
Iron | 8–80 mg/100 g [29,36,44] | Exceeding reference dose, low absorption [73], no concern |
Contaminants | ||
Aflatoxins | n.d. [34] | No concern [59] |
POP | 2.1–8.8 mg/kg [23] | No significant contribution to daily intake [62], no concern |
Ochratoxin A | <4–34.4 g/kg [63,64] | No concern if ≤5 g/kg [59] |
Acrylamide | < 20–720 g/kg [3,35,40,60] | No concern for low content [61], limit would be useful |
Mercury | 0.05 mg/kg [42,44] | Inorganic, limited adsorption, no concern [58] |
Cadmium | 0.07 mg/kg [42,44] | Below limit for wheat, no concern [56] |
Lead | ≤0.36 mg/kg 2.63 mg/kg [42,44,44] | Low lead qualities available, content must be mitigated [42,55] |
Caffeine | 0.65–1% [3,31] | Not exceeding intake guidelines [50], no concern |
Effect Assessed | Test System | Cell Line | Outcome | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cytotoxicity | MTT assay | HepG2 | not cytotoxic up to 10,000 g/mL | [65] |
Cytotoxicity | LDH assay | HaCaT and HFF-1 | negative up to 1000 g/mL | [76] |
Cytotoxicity | MTT assay | SH-SY5Y | not cytotoxic for all extracts tested | [77] |
DNA damage | Comet assay | HepG2 | negative up to 1000 g/mL | [65] |
Antioxidant capacity | Hemolysis | Erythrocytes | protective against oxidative stress at 25 g/L | [36] |
Reduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species | ORAC Assay | IEC-6 | reduction at 0.004, 0.04, and 0.4 mg/mL | [71] |
Modulation of insulin secretion | ELISA | pancreatic INS-1E | enhanced secretion | [78] |
Uptake of sugars | non standard assay | Caco-2 | reduced uptake | [79] |
Obesity effects | non standard assay | 3T3-L1 RAW264.7 M | reduction of obesity benchmarks | [80] |
Effect Assessed | Animal Species | Duration (d) | Outcome | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
Toxicity of aqueous extract | rat | 28 | no toxic effects a 1 g/kg bw per day | [82] |
Toxicity of melanoidin rich extract fraction | rat | 28 | no toxicity at 1 g/kg bw per day, slight effect of high fiber content | [71] |
Effect of silver skin extracts on muscle growth | mouse | 29 | bigger forelimb muscle, more grip strength | [83] |
Hypolipidemic effect of silver skin | rat | 56 | reduced effect of high fat nutrition | [84] |
Effect of silver skin extract on streptozotocin induced damage | rat | 35 | reduction of damage | [72] |
Effect of extract on total cholesterol and triglyceride plasma levels | rat | 45 | reduction, inhibition of pancreas lipase | [85] |
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Lorbeer, L.; Schwarz, S.; Franke, H.; Lachenmeier, D.W. Toxicological Assessment of Roasted Coffee Silver Skin (Testa of Coffea sp.) as Novel Food Ingredient. Molecules 2022, 27, 6839. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206839
Lorbeer L, Schwarz S, Franke H, Lachenmeier DW. Toxicological Assessment of Roasted Coffee Silver Skin (Testa of Coffea sp.) as Novel Food Ingredient. Molecules. 2022; 27(20):6839. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206839
Chicago/Turabian StyleLorbeer, Liane, Steffen Schwarz, Heike Franke, and Dirk W. Lachenmeier. 2022. "Toxicological Assessment of Roasted Coffee Silver Skin (Testa of Coffea sp.) as Novel Food Ingredient" Molecules 27, no. 20: 6839. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206839