Microorganism-Driven 2,4-D Biodegradation: Current Status and Emerging Opportunities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Toxicity
3. 2,4-D-Degrading Microorganisms
4. Bacterial and Fungal Degradation Pathways of 2,4-D
5. Genes and Enzymes Associated with the Degradation of 2,4-D
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Microorganisms | Sources | Degradation Efficiency | Initial 2,4-D Concentration | Incubation Conditions | Comments | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cupriavidus gilardii T-1 | A soybean field | 100% in 20 h | 100 mg/L | pH 7.0–9.0, 37–42 °C | Fast degradation of 2,4-D and its analogues highlights the potential for the use of C. gilardii T-1 in bioremediation of PAA herbicides. | [79] | |
Novosphingobium DY4 | A paddy-planted field site | More than 95% in 5–7 d | 200 mg/kg | pH 7.2, 30 °C | DY4 contained the TfdAα gene (converting 2,4-D into 2,4-DCP). | [80] | |
Cupriavidus campinensis BJ71 | Soil | 99.57% in 6 d | 350 mg/L | pH 7.0, 30 °C | Strain BJ71 could also degrade quizalofop and fluroxypyr. | [81] | |
Cupriavidus oxalaticus X32 | Sewage sludge | 100% within 3 d | 500 mg/L | 30 °C, pH 6.5 | X32 still functioned at a pH of 10.5. | [82] | |
Delftia acidovorans P4a | Concrete samples of herbicide plant | ND | ND | ND | A chromosomally located catabolic transposon carries genes for a complete 2,4-D degradation pathway. | [83] | |
Corynebacterium humireducens MFC-5 | MFC | ND | ND | pH 10.0 | The reductions were greatly enhanced by the addition of quinones/humics serving as redox mediators. | [84] | |
Achromobacter sp. QXH | A mixture of soil and activated sludge | ND | ND | ND | Bioaugmentation promoted the steady transformation of glucose-grown granules into 2,4-D-degrading sludge granules and fast establishment of 2,4-D degradation ability. | [85] | |
Burkholderia cepacia DS-1, Pseudomonas sp. DS-2, Sphingomonas paucimobilis DS-3 | Soil | 69%, 73%, and 54% in 10 d, respectively | 50 mg/L | 30 ± 1 °C | Strains DS-1 and DS-2 may additionally possess the potential to metabolize 2,4-DCP. | [86] | |
Sphingomonas agrestis 58-1 | Soil | ND | ND | 30 °C | Induced the overexpression of the cadAB genes using E. coli as the host strain. | [87] | |
Achromobacter xylosoxidans subsp. denitrificans strain EST4002 | Soil | ND | ND | ND | EST4002 contains plasmid pEST4011. | [88] | |
Variovorax paradoxus TV1 | Soil | ND | ND | ND | The PTV1 partial tfdA sequence showed 77% similarity to the archetypal tfdA gene sequence from C. necator JMP134. | [89] | |
Sphingomonas sp. TFD44 | Herbicide wastewater treatment facility | ND | ND | ND | Strain TFD 44’s tfdI gene cluster and pJP4’s tfdII gene cluster share some common characteristics. | [90] | |
Bradyrhizobium sp. strain HW13 | Hawaiian soil | ND | ND | 30 °C | A new family of 2,4-D degradation genes, cadRABKC, was cloned and characterized. | [91] | |
Bradyrhizobium elkanii USDA94 | Soil | ND | ND | ND | The cad cluster in the ordinary root-nodulating B. elkanii USDA94 had the ability to degrade 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. | [92] | |
Pseudomonas sp. NJ 10, Pseudomonas aeruginosa NJ 15 | Agricultural soil | 96.6% and 99.8% in 20 d, respectively | 100 mg/L | pH 7.0, 37 °C | The isolated strains possess phosphate-solubilizing capabilities. | [93] | |
Aeronomas hydrophila IBRB-36 4CPA | ND | ND | ND | ND | Plasmid pAH36 contains a gene for chlorine-substituted phenoxyacetic acid catabolism. | [94] | |
Halomonas sp. EF43 | Alkaline lake sediment | ND | ND | 30 °C, pH 10.0 | Strain EF43 can stably maintain the pJP4 plasmid carrying the 2,4-D degradation genes. | [95] | |
Corynebacterium sp. SOGU16, Achromobacter sp. SOGU11 | Oil-contaminated soils | ND | ND | pH 7.2, 27 ± 2 °C | The optimum pH for dioxygenase-specific activities was between 7.6 and 8.0, and the temperature was between 30 and 35 °C. | [96] | |
Cupriavidus sp. CY-1 | Forest soil | 100% within 72 h | 500 mg/L | 28 °C | Strain was isolated from uncontaminated soil. | [97] | |
Achromobacter sp. LZ35 | Soil | 90% in 12 days | 50 mg/L | 30 °C, pH 8.0 | The first report of an Achromobacter sp. strain that was capable of mineralizing both 2,4-D and MCPA. | [98] | |
Delftia sp. | A polluted river | 99.0% in 28 h | 200 mg/L | 28 °C | The ability of the strain to degrade and detoxify 2,4-D in synthetic wastewater across different aerobic reactors was assessed. | [99] | |
Rhodococcus ruber, Ochrobactrum anthropic, | WWTP | In about 2 mo | 100 mg/L | pH 7.0, 20 °C | The experiments identified Rhodococcus as the main genus biodegrading 2,4-D. | [100] | |
Cupriavidus pampae CPDB6T | An agricultural soil | 22% after 25 d | 350 mg/L | 30 °C | The strain was able to deamidate acetamide, which differentiated it from all other species of Cupriavidus. | [101] | |
Fungi | Penicillium sp. | Soil | 29.80% | 100 mg/L | 30 °C | ND | [102] |
Aspergillus penicilloides, Umbelopsis isabelina (Former Mortierella isabellina) | Soil and decayed wood and walnut | 52% and 46% after 5 d | 100 mg/L | pH 4.5 | Strain responses varied with the taxonomic groups and the chemicals tested. | [103] | |
Penicillium chrysogenum CLONA2 | Saltmine | ND | ND | pH 7.0 | Penicillium chrysogenum in solid medium was able to grow at concentrations of up to 1000 mg/L of 2,4-D with sucrose. | [104] | |
Mortierella sp. | Soil | 32% within 1 h | 250 μM | 25 °C | ND | [105] | |
Rigidoporus sp. FMD21, Fusarium sp. T1-BH.1, Verticillium sp. T1-BH.2 | Decayed wood Soil | ND | ND | pH 6.0, 30 °C | Laccase is important for the degradation of 2,4-D; CYPs are involved in the pathway of 2,4-D transformation by Rigidoporus sp. FMD21. | [106] | |
Penicillium sp. | Soil | ND | ND | 28 °C | The first report of a Penicillium strain possessing the capability to degrade 2,4-D. | [107] | |
Umbelopsis isabellina DSM1414 | Soil | 98% after 5 d | 25 mg/L | 28 °C | Enzymes responsible for 2,4-D degradation by this fungus include CYPs. | [108] | |
Trametes versicolor (L.:Fr.) Pilát Mo008 | Crescentia alata | 100% in 850 h | 1000 mg/L | pH 5.0, 25 °C | The strain presented activity of an enzymatic complex which was composed of laccase, LiP, and MnP. | [109] |
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Chen, S.-F.; Chen, W.-J.; Song, H.; Liu, M.; Mishra, S.; Ghorab, M.A.; Chen, S.; Chang, C. Microorganism-Driven 2,4-D Biodegradation: Current Status and Emerging Opportunities. Molecules 2024, 29, 3869. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163869
Chen S-F, Chen W-J, Song H, Liu M, Mishra S, Ghorab MA, Chen S, Chang C. Microorganism-Driven 2,4-D Biodegradation: Current Status and Emerging Opportunities. Molecules. 2024; 29(16):3869. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163869
Chicago/Turabian StyleChen, Shao-Fang, Wen-Juan Chen, Haoran Song, Mingqiu Liu, Sandhya Mishra, Mohamed A. Ghorab, Shaohua Chen, and Changqing Chang. 2024. "Microorganism-Driven 2,4-D Biodegradation: Current Status and Emerging Opportunities" Molecules 29, no. 16: 3869. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163869