Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Environmental Risks Posed by PPCPs
2.1. Sources, Occurrence, and Persistence of PPCPs
2.2. PPCP Exposure and Toxicity
3. Sample Preparation, Extraction, and Clean-Up
3.1. Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE)
3.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
3.3. Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction (DLLME)
3.4. Other Extraction Methods
4. Instrumental Analysis
4.1. LC-MS and LC-MS2 Techniques
4.2. GC-MS and GC-MS2 Techniques
4.3. Other Techniques
5. Summary of Analytical Challenges
6. Conclusion and Future Prospects
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Chemical structure | |||
Name | Ciprofloxacin | Metoprolol | Tramadol |
Formula | C17H18FN3O3 | C15H25NO3 | C16H25NO2 |
CAS | 85721-33-1 | 51384-51-1 | 123154-38-1 |
Molecular Weight | 331.34 g/mol | 267.36 g/mol | 263.37 g/mol |
Water solubility at 25 °C (mg/mL) a | 36 | >1000 | 0.036 |
pKa a | 6.09; 8.74 | 9.7 | 9.23 |
Log Kow a | 0.28 | 1.88 | 3.01 |
Log Koc a | 4.78 | 1.79 | 2.79 |
Chemical structure | |||
Name | Cetirizine | Amoxicillin | Ibuprofen |
Formula | C21H25ClN2O3 | C16H19N3O5S | C13H18O2 |
CAS | 83881-51-0 | 26787-78-0 | 15687-27-1 |
Molecular Weight | 388.9 g/mol | 365.4 g/mol | 206.28 g/mol |
Water solubility at 25 °C (mg/mL) a | 0.101 | 0.011 | 0.021 |
pKa a | 1.52; 2.92; 8.27 | 2.6 | 4.91 |
Log Kow a | 1.70 | 0.87 | 3.97 |
Log Koc a | 2.30 | 2 | Log 3400 |
Chemical structure | |||
Name | Galaxolide | Triclosan | Methylparabens |
Formula | C18H26O | C12H7Cl3O2 | C8H8O3 |
CAS | 1222-05-5 | 3380-34-5 | 99-76-3 |
Molecular Weight | 258.4 g/mol | 289.5 g/mol | 152.15 g/mol |
Water solubility at 25 °C (mg/mL) a | 0.00175 | 0.01 | 2.5 |
pKa a | −6.9 | 7.9 | 8.5 |
Log Kow a | 5.90 | 4.76 | 1.96 |
Log Koc a | Log 2.0 × 104 | 3.54 | Log 87 |
PPCPs | Classification | Occurrence | Concentration | Country | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pharmaceuticals | |||||
Ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin | Antibiotics | WWTP influent | 1000–2200 ng/L | Italy | [31] |
Ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin and sulfamethoxazole | Antibiotics | Wastewater influent | 570–1200 ng/L | Canada | [32] |
Ciprofloxacin | Antibiotic | Biosolids | 6500 ng/g | Canada | [32] |
Amoxicillin | Antibiotics | STP | 172 ng/L | India | [33] |
Ketoprofen, diclofenac, and indomethacin | Analgesic/NSAIDs | Sludge | 4.4–77 ng/g | Japan | [34] |
Sulfapyridine, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, and three sulfonamide acetylated metabolites | Antibiotics | WWTP (effluent and influent) | 3–124 ng/L | China | [35] |
Metoprolol, atenolol, betaxolol, Sotalol, Pindolol, and Nadolol | β-blocker | Hospital wastewater | 3.4–6700 ng/L | Italy | [31] |
Atenolol and carbamazepine | β-blocker, antibiotics | Soil | 0.1–64.6 ng/g | Spain | [36] |
Tramadol, ofloxacin, gemfibrozil, atenolol, caffeine, and cetirizine | Analgesic, antibiotics, lipid regulator, β-blocker, stimulant and antihistamine | Irrigation water | 1100–4400 ng/L | Spain | [37] |
Tramadol, cetirizine, and clarithromycin | Analgesic, antihistamine and antibiotics | Soil | 12.7–14.6 ng/g | Spain | [37] |
Estrone, 17b-estradiol, estriol, 2-hydroxyestrone, 16α-hydroxyestrone, 4-hydroxyestrone, 2-hydroxyestradiol, 4- hydroxyestradiol, 17-epiestriol, 16keto-estradiol, and 16-epiestriol | Steroidal hormones | WWTP (effluent and influent) | n.d.–62.9 ng/L | China | [38] |
River water | n.d.–51.7 ng/L | ||||
Atenolol, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, ranitidine | β-blocker, Antibiotics and antihistamine | WWTP (effluent and influent) | 34–3585 ng/L | Saudi Arabia | [39] |
Metformin and acetaminophen | Antihyperglycemic and analgesic | Sea water | <LOQ–>3000 ng/L | Saudi Arabia | [40] |
Personal care products (PCPs) | |||||
3-Benzophenone galaxolide and tonalide | UVA/UVB filters, Synthetic fragrances | Irrigation water | 1200–18,900 ng/L | Spain | [37] |
Galaxolide | Fragrances | Soil | 2.8 ng/g | Spain | [37] |
Galaxolide and tonalide | Fragrances | Sediment | 2.39–52.5 ng/g | Brazil | [41] |
Oxybenzone, triclosan, and triclocarban | UV filters and disinfectants | Wastewater (effluent and influent) and sludge | n.d.–8880 ng/L | India | [42] |
Triclosan and parabens | Disinfectants and preservatives | Surface water and sediment | n.d.–5160 ng/L | India | [43] |
Triclocarban and triclosan | Disinfectants | Biosolids | 12,640–36,060 ng/g | USA | [44] |
Triclosan and triclocarban | Disinfectants | Biosolids | 2900–6800 ng/g | Canada | [32] |
Benzotriazole and methyl benzotriazol | UV filters | Groundwater | 267–1980 ng/L | Spain | [45] |
Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) | Disinfectants | Biosolids | 760–22,588 ng/g | USA | [46] |
Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) | Disinfectants | Soils | 2.8–221 ng/g | ||
Diethyltoluamide | Insect repellent | Surface water | 1.4–527 ng/L | Singapore | [47] |
Tonalide, galaxolide | Fragrances | Groundwater | 1–50 ng/L | France | [48,49] |
Musk ambrette, musk ketone, and musk xylen | 209–1304 ng/L |
Analyte | Matrix | Extraction Method | Analytical Technique | Analytical Conditions | Analysis Time (min) | Analytical Parameters | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin | WWTP influent | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (125 mm× 2.0 mm, particle size 5 μm) MP: acetonitrile (A) and HPLC grade water with 0.1% formic acid (B) Flow rate= 0.2 mL/min | 45 min | Recovery = 93–107% LOD = 1–3 ng/L | [31] |
Ibuprofen, carbamazepine, and triclosan | WWTP effluent | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 Column (100 mm× 2.1 mm, particle size 3 μm). MP: acetonitrile/methanol (A) and HPLC grade water with 0.1% formic acid (B), Flow rate = 0.25 mL/min | 35 min | Recovery = >80% LOQ = 1–2 ng/L | [79] |
Amoxicillin | STP | SPE Oasis HLB | HPLC-PDA | λ: 228 nm C18 Column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) MP: isocratic program of 0.45% Na2HPO4 in water (A) and Methanol (B) in the fixed ratio of 2:1 Flow rate = 1.5 mL/min | 4.9 min | Recovery = 64–88% LOD = 1 ng/L LOQ =10 ng/L R2 = 0.998 | [33] |
Ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, gatifloxacin, sparfloxacin and cefuroxime | STP | SPE Oasis HLB | HPLC-PDA | λ: 215 and 280 nm C18 Column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) MP: 0.1% aqueous TFA (A) and acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 1.0 mL/min | 30 min | Recovery = 25–108% LOD = 10 ng/L LOQ =30 ng/L R2 = 0.9806–0.9957 | [80] |
Sulfapyridine, sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamethazine, and three sulfonamide acetylated metabolites | WWTP (effluent and influent) | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 2.6 μm) MP: methanol (A) and distilled water (B) Flow rate = 0.3 mL/min | 6 min | Recovery = 77.7–148.1% LOD = 0.01–0.23 ng/L LOQ = 0.03–0.78 ng/L R2 = 0.995–0.999 | [35] |
Sulfathiazole, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, oxytetracycline, and chlortetracycline | WWTP effluent | SPE Oasis HLB and MCX | LC-ESI-IT–TOF/MS | C18 column (75 mm× 3.0 mm, particle size 3.0 μm). MP: 0.3% formic acid and 0.1% ammonium acetate in water (A) and methanol and Acetonitrile (1:1) (B). | 6 min | Recovery = 63–118% LOD = 9.8–25.8 ng/L R2 = 0.9964–0.9996 | [81] |
Estrone, 17β-Estradiol, estriol, 2-Hydroxyestrone, 16α-Hydroxyestrone, 4-Hydroxyestrone, 2-Hydroxyestradiol, 4- Hydroxyestradiol, 17-Epiestriol, 16keto-estradiol, and 16-Epiestriol | WWTP (effluent and influent) and river water | SPE Oasis HLB Derivatization | GC-MS | HP-5 MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) Flow rate = 0.85 mL/min Temperature program: start with 100 °C, rising at 10 °C/min to 200 °C, then 8 °C/min to 260 °C, then 3 °C/min to 310 °C, and finally held at 310 °C for 2 min | 37 min | LOD =1.4–6.0 ng/L LOQ =4.8–19.8 ng/L R2 = 0.9838–0.9995 | [38] |
Atenolol, bisoprolol, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, clarithromycin, trimethoprim, ketoprofen, diphenhydramine HCl, ranitidine, and carbamazepine | WWTP (effluent and influent) | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (30 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.9 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and ethanol (B) Flow rate = 0.5 mL/min | 7.2 min | Recovery = 70.4–112.2% LOD = 0.06–16.0 ng/L LOQ = 0.20–52.8 ng/L R2 = 0.9921–0.9992 | [39] |
Sulfapyridine, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole and sulfaphenazole | Surface water | Deep eutectic solvent (DES) and liquid–liquid microextraction | UHPLC-PDA | λ: 270 nm. C18 column (30 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.7 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and 90% acetonitrile in ethanol (B) Flow rate = 1 mL/min | 3.5 min | Recovery = 78.2–105.2% LOD = 0.78–3.42 ng/L LOQ = 2.38–10.37 ng/L R2 = 0.9991–0.9997 | [77] |
Lincomycin, ibuprofen, paraxanthin, and naproxen | Lake | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (150 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 3.5 μm) MP: ammonium formate/formic acid buffer (A) and acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 0.2 mL/min | 50 min | Recovery = 78–118% LOD = 1.7–25 ng/L LOQ = 2.5–25 ng/L R2 ≥ 0.99 | [82] |
Acetaminophen, caffeine, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, fenoprofen, naproxen, propyphenazone, clofibric acid, gemfibrozil, diclofenac, indomethacin, salicylic acid, crotamiton, and trimethoprim | Raw wastewater, surface water and groundwater samples | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (150 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 3.5 μm). MP: ammonium acetate in water (A) and ammonium acetate in methanol (B) Flow rate = 0.25 mL/min | 18 min | Recovery = 66.5–102% LOD = 0.1–5 ng/L LOQ = 0.3–10 ng/L R2 ≥ 0.996 | [83] |
Estrone, 17 α-estradiol, estriol, progesterone, pquiline, diethylstilbestrol, and ethinylestradiol | Sea water, mineral water, and tap water | Air-agitated liquid–liquid microextraction method based on solidification of a floating organic droplet (AALLME-SFO) | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (50 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.7 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and ethanol (B) Flow rate = 0.4 mL/min Flow rate = 0.05 mL/min | 6.7 min | Recovery = 90.14–99.60% LOD = 0.021–0.034 ng/L LOQ = 0.046–0.103 ng/L R2 = 0.9990–0.9998 | [84] |
Atrazine, bisphenol-A, caffeine, carbamazepine, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen, naproxen, simazine, sulfamethoxazole, and trimethoprim | Raw and treated water | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-MS/MS | N.R. | N.R. | Recovery = 70–128% LOD = 1–2.5 ng/L | [85] |
Sulfadiazine, sulfapyridine, sulfathiazole, trimethoprim, sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, naproxen, paracetamol, diclofenac acid, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, flumequine, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, macrolides, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, erythromycin, tetracyclines, oxytetracycline, isochlortetracycline, tetracycline, cephalexin monohydrate, cefotaxime sodium, penicillin G, amphenicols, chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, triclocarban, triclosan, carbamazepine, aminoglycoside, spectinomycin, antihyperlipidemic, gemfibrozil, diltiazem, diphenhydramine, and bisphenol A. | Lake | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (50 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.8 μm). MP: Water (A) and Acetonitril (B) fro −ESI and 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and acetonitrile (B) for +ESI. Flow rate = 0.25 mL/min | N.R. | Recovery = 70–125% LOD = 0.01–1.1 ng/L LOQ = 0.03–3.3 ng/L R2 = 0.9937–0.9999 | [86] |
Ibuprofen, diclofenac, fexofenadine, atorvastatin, irbesartan, triclosan, sulfasalazine, benzophenone 1, 2, and 4, methylparaben, diazepam, and oxazepam | WWTP (effluent and influent) and surface water | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | Separation of acidic analytes: C18 column (150 mm × 1.0 mm, particle size 1.7 μm). MP: (80:20) Water:Methanol conatin 1 mM Ammonium fluoride (A) and (5:95) Water:Methanol conatin 1 mM Ammonium fluoride (B) Flow rate = 0.04 mL/min Separation of basicanalytes: CHIRALPAK CBH HPLC column. MP: 1 mM ammonium acetate/methanol 85:15 (v/v) (Isocratic). Flow rate = 0.1 mL/min | N.R. | Recovery = 44.6–120% LOQ = 0.31–41.43 ng/L | [87] |
Azithromycin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, vancomycin, and sulfamethoxazole | WWTP (effluent and influent) and surface water | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-coupled to hybrid MS/MS/Ion trap | C18 column (100 mm × 4.6 mm, particle size 2.6 μm). MP: 0.2% formic acid (A) and acetonitrile with 0.2% formic acid (B) Flow rate = 0.5 mL/min | 35 min | LOD = 0.03–15 ng/L LOQ = 0.9–50 ng/L | [88] |
Acetylsalicylic acid, naproxen, methyl and ethyl paraben, estrone, 17β-estradiol | Drinking water | SPE-DEX | LC-ESI-MS/MS | In −ESI: C18 column (50 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 2.7 μm). MP: 10 mM N-methylmorpholine (A) and methanol (B). Flow rate = 0.5 mL/min In +ESI: Kinetex PFP HPLC column column (50 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 2.6 μm). MP: 5 mM ammonium acetate (A) and methanol (B). Flow rate = 0.8 mL/min | 5.5 min (−ESI) 6.5 min (+ESI) | Recovery = 32.9–130.1% LOD = 0.2–0.9 ng/L LOQ = 1.0–2.3 ng/L R2 = 0.9976–0.9996 | [89] |
Chloroform, tribromomethane, and dichloroacetonitrile | Drinking water | SPE-DEX | GC-ECD | DB1701 column | N.R. | LOD = 0.01–0.03 μg/L LOQ = 0.2 μg/L R2 = 0.9926–0.9992 | [89] |
Analyte | Matrix | Extraction Method | Analytical Technique | Analytical Conditions | Analysis Time (min) | Analytical Parameters | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, indomethacin, ketoprofen, tramadol, diazepam, carbamazepine, ranitidine, and furosemide | Plant (root and stem/leaf) | QuEChERS | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, particle size 1.8 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in ultrapure water (A) and acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 0.3 mL/min | 18 min | Recovery = 41.0–120.0% LOQ = 0.05–50 ng/g R2 = 0.9980–1.000 | [90] |
Tramadol, cetirizine, and clarithromycin | Soil | QuEChERS | LC-ESI- MS/MS | C18 column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, particle size 1.8 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in ultrapure water (A) and acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 0.3 mL/min | 18 min | Recovery = 70–120% LOQ < 0.5 ng/g R2 > 0.99 | [37] |
Acetaminophen, azithromycin, diclofenac, furosemide, norfloxacin, salbutamol, and sulfamerazine | Sludge | Ultrasonication and SPE Oasis HLB | Micro LC- MS/MS | C18 column (2.1 mm × 100 mm, particle size 1.7 μm) | N.R. | Recovery = 86.2–114.5% RSD = 2.9–29.8% | [91] |
Ibuprofen, atenolol, carbamazepine, erythromycin, diclofenac, and diazepam | Sediment | Samples extracted with methanol and evaporated until dry, then diluted with methanol | LC-ESI- MS/MS | C18 column (150 mm × 4.6 mm, particle size 3 μm) MP: 5 mM ammonium acetate in water (A) and 5 mM ammonium acetate in methanol (B) Flow rate = 1 mL/min | N.R. | Recovery = 87–97% LOQ = 0.1 ng/g Reproducibility > 90% | [41] |
Tonalide, galaxolide, and caffeine | Sediment | Samples extracted with methanol and evaporated until dry, then diluted with methanol | GC-MS/MS | DB-XLB column (60 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) Flow rate = 1 mL/min | N.R. | ||
Ketoprofen, diclofenac, and indomethacin | Sludge | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI- MS/MS | C8 column (150 mm × 2.0 mm, particle size 3 μm) MP: aqueous NH4H2O2/CH2O2 buffer; 10 mM, pH 3.7 (A) and acetonitrile (B) | N.R. | Recovery = 52–137% (at pH-7) LOD = 0.16–0.5 ng/g LOQ = 0.49–1.53 ng/g | [34,92] |
Estrogens, caffeine, triclosan, and ciprofloxacin | Sludge and soil | SPE Oasis HLB | HPLC-UV | λ: 200, 254 and 279 nm. C18 column (25 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) MP: Acetonitrile (A) and Water (B) Flow rate = 0.8–1.0 mL/min | 21 min | Recovery = 28–104% LOD = 0.30–6.42 ng/g | [93] |
Carbamazepine, clarithromycin, carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide, clindamycin, diclofenac, diltiazem, diphenhydramine, erythromycin, fluoxetine, paroxetine, norfluoxetine, gemfibrozil, josamycin, triclosan, and triclocarban | Biosolids and soils | SPE | LC-ESI- MS/MS | C8 column (100 × 4.6 mm, 3 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid (A) and Acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 0.3 mL/min | 30 min | Recovery = 26–146% LOQ = 0.1–27 ng/g R2 > 0.99 | [46] |
Quetiapine, fumarate, aripiprazole, and oxybenzone. | Sludge | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI- MS/MS | C8 column (150 × 2.1 mm, 3 μm) MP: 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and methanol (B) | N.R. | Recovery = 100 ± 30% LOQ = 0.5–20 ng/L R2 ≥ 0.99 | [42] |
Triclosan | Sediment | SPE | GC-MS | HP-5 MS capillary column (30 m × 0.32 mm × 0.25 μm) Flow rate = 2.25 mL/min Temperature program: 50 °C/min for 1 min, 30 °C/min to 200 °C, then 2 °C/min to 230 °C, then 15 °C/min to 320 °C (10 min hold) | 11 min | Recovery = 84.6 ± 5.7% LOD = 1.5 ng/g R2 = 0.999 | [43] |
Sulfadiazine, sulfapyridine, sulfathiazole, trimethoprim, sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, sulfamethoxazole, naproxen, paracetamol, diclofenac acid, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, flumequine, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, macrolides, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, erythromycin, tetracyclines, oxytetracycline, isochlortetracycline, tetracycline, cephalexin monohydrate, cefotaxime sodium, penicillin G, amphenicols, chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, triclocarban, triclosan, carbamazepine, aminoglycoside, spectinomycin, antihyperlipidemic, gemfibrozil, diltiazem, diphenhydramine, and bisphenol A. | Sediment | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (50 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.8 μm). MP: Water (A) and Acetonitril (B) fro −ESI and 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and acetonitrile (B) for +ESI. Flow rate = 0.25 mL/min | N.R. | Recovery = 75–118% LOD = 0.01–0.6 ng/g LOQ = 0.03–1.7 ng/g R2 = 0.9937–0.9999 | [86] |
Ibuprofen, diclofenac, ketoprofen, bezafibrate, benzophenone 1, 2, and 4, methylparaben, morphine, and nomorphine | Sludge | MAE | LC-ESI-MS/MS | Separation of acidic analytes: C18 column (150 mm × 1.0 mm, particle size 1.7 μm). MP: (80:20) Water:Methanol conatin 1 mM Ammonium fluoride (A) and (5:95) Water:Methanol conatin 1 mM Ammonium fluoride (B) Flow rate = 0.04 mL/min Separation of basicanalytes: CHIRALPAK CBH HPLC column. MP: 1 mM ammonium acetate/methanol 85:15 (v/v) (Isocratic). Flow rate = 0.1 mL/min | N.R. | Recovery = 40.8–119.4% LOQ = 0.36–13.22 ng/g | [87] |
Azithromycin, clarithromycin, metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, vancomycin, and sulfamethoxazole | Sewage sludge | QuEChERS | LC- coupled to hybrid MS/MS/Ion trap | C18 column (100 mm × 4.6 mm, particle size 2.6 μm). MP: 0.2% formic acid (A) and 0.2% formic acid in acetonitrile (B) Flow rate = 0.5 mL/min | 35 min | LOD = 2.2–490 ng/g LOQ = 7.4–1670 ng/g | [88] |
Carbamazepine, triclosan, ibuprofen, and galaxolide | Sewage sludge | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.7 μm). MP: 0.1% formic acid in water (A) and 0.1% formic acid in methanol (B) Flow rate = 0.3 mL/min | 16 min | Recovery = 89.7–93.6% LOQ = 0.6–1.2 ng/g R2 > 0.99 | [94] |
Telmisartan, airtazapine, amitriptyline, caffeine, carbamazepine, cetirizine, citalopram, venlafaxine, and triclosan. | Sewage sludge | Accelerated solvent extractor | LC-MS/MS | C18 column (100 mm × 3 mm, particle size 2.7 m). MP: 0.5 mM ammonium fluoride in water with 0.01% formic acid (A) and methanol (B) Flow rate = 0.4 mL/min | 23.5 min | LOQ = 300–600 ng/g | [95] |
Tetracycline, sulfamethoxazole, and triclocarban | Sediment | SPE Oasis HLB | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, particle size 1.7 m). MP: Water (A) and 0.1% formic acid (B) Flow rate = 0.2 mL/min | 7.5 min | Recovery = 81.3–100% LOD = 2–3 ng/g LOQ = 18.2–27.8 ng/g | [96] |
Carbamazepin, ibuprofen, caffeine, sulfamethoxazole, methylparaben, and propylparaben, | Soil | Ultrasonic-assisted extraction and dispersive SPE | LC-ESI-MS/MS | C18 column (50 mm × 3 mm, particle size 2.6 μm). MP: 0.1% formic acid (A) and 0.1% formic acid in methanol (B) Flow rate = 0.6 mL/min | 30 min | Recovery = 26–102% LOD = 0.07–1.34 ng/g LOQ = 0.24–4.46 ng/g | [97,98] |
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Alqarni, A.M. Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review. Molecules 2024, 29, 3900. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163900
Alqarni AM. Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review. Molecules. 2024; 29(16):3900. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163900
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlqarni, Abdulmalik M. 2024. "Analytical Methods for the Determination of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Solid and Liquid Environmental Matrices: A Review" Molecules 29, no. 16: 3900. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163900