Enhancing Insight into Photochemical Weathering of Flax and Miscanthus: Exploring Diverse Chemical Compositions and Composite Materials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Fiber Analysis
2.2. Compressed Fiber Disc Weathering
2.3. Weathering of Composites
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Elemental Nitrogen, Sulfur, Carbon and Hydrogen Contents
3.2.2. Ash Content
3.2.3. Determination of Soluble Extractive Content
3.2.4. Determination of Holocellulose Content
3.2.5. Determination of Cellulose Content
3.2.6. Determination of Klason Lignin Content
3.2.7. Fiber and Disc Preparation
3.2.8. Composite Preparation
3.2.9. Accelerated UV Weathering
3.2.10. Spectrophotometer Analysis
3.2.11. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Observation
3.2.12. Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR)
3.2.13. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
- Heating from room temperature to 105 °C;
- Isothermal heating at 105 °C for 10 min to remove residual moisture;
- Fast heating from 105 °C to 175 °C for 2 min;
- Isothermal heating at 175 °C for 20 min.
4. Conclusions
- The weathering of fibers was found to be influenced not only by the presence of lignin, but also by their type, composition and initial color. Lignin presence and content in miscanthus significantly influenced color variation, while extractive presence showed a limiting effect on color variation for both fibers.
- Both raw and EF flax and miscanthus exhibited color changes, reaching the same value for total color variation () of 12–13 after 20 weeks of weathering. variation is linked to for miscanthus and to for flax.
- Miscanthus raw and EF fibers darkened over time, whereas Flax-Raw and EF fibers lightened. This behavior correlated with higher lignin content and lignin type in miscanthus, along with significant differences in carbonyl (C=O) formation and increase.
- Delignified fibers, particularly flax x3, demonstrated better color stability.
- The preparation process of composites significantly influenced fiber color before weathering, thereby affecting the color evolution during weathering. Composites demonstrated better color stability when incorporating miscanthus (Raw, EF and x3) and delignified flax fibers. This stability was attributed not to the type of lignin present but to the thermal stability of the fibers, as suggested by the TGA results. The thermal stability of the fibers during processing plays a crucial role in color variation by producing darker degradable products. However, no direct correlation was found between the weathering of fibers alone and their behavior after being integrated into the PP blue matrix. The color variation trends of standalone fibers differed from those observed after their integration into the matrix, indicating that the extrusion and injection processes contributed to pre-weathering color changes likely due to the thermal modification of the fibers.
- Another hypothesis that could explain this behavior involves the chemical interactions between the PP matrix and the fibers, possibly due to the disruption of the PP stabilizer by the presence of the fibers. Additionally, the color variation might be attributed to an interference phenomenon related to the blue color of the matrix. Further investigation into these hypotheses is recommended to fully understand the underlying mechanisms.
- By analyzing the results of this study, we aim to develop strategies to enhance fiber stability during composite preparation and aging. Efforts are underway to improve the stability of these fibers.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Element, Content (%) | ||
---|---|---|
Fibers | C | H |
Flax-Raw | 42.1 | 6.2 |
Misc-Raw | 46.0 | 6.0 |
Fibers | Klason Lignin (%) |
---|---|
Misc-Raw | 23.00 ± 0.54 |
Misc EF | 23.52 ± 0.55 |
Misc x3 | 2.50 ± 0.40 |
Flax-Raw | 9.10 ± 0.58 |
Flax EF | 9.50 ± 0.61 |
Flax x3 | 0.82 ± 0.23 |
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El Hage, R.; Carvalho Martins, R.; Brendlé, C.; Lafon-Pham, D.; Sonnier, R. Enhancing Insight into Photochemical Weathering of Flax and Miscanthus: Exploring Diverse Chemical Compositions and Composite Materials. Molecules 2024, 29, 3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163945
El Hage R, Carvalho Martins R, Brendlé C, Lafon-Pham D, Sonnier R. Enhancing Insight into Photochemical Weathering of Flax and Miscanthus: Exploring Diverse Chemical Compositions and Composite Materials. Molecules. 2024; 29(16):3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163945
Chicago/Turabian StyleEl Hage, Roland, Raíssa Carvalho Martins, Clément Brendlé, Dominique Lafon-Pham, and Rodolphe Sonnier. 2024. "Enhancing Insight into Photochemical Weathering of Flax and Miscanthus: Exploring Diverse Chemical Compositions and Composite Materials" Molecules 29, no. 16: 3945. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29163945