Nanomedicine for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Neurodegenerative Diseases
2.1. Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and Implicated Genes
2.2. Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and Implicated Genes
3. Nanoparticles and Nanomedicine
3.1. Challenges Facing Nanoparticles
3.2. Crossing the Blood–Brain Barrier
3.3. Gene Therapy
3.4. Nanomedicine in Clinical Trials—Update
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drug | Function |
---|---|
Donepezil (Aricept) | Cholinesterase Inhibitor |
Galantamine (Razadyne) | Cholinesterase inhibitor |
Tacrine (Cognex) | Cholinesterase inhibitor |
Memantine (Namenda) | N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor blocker |
Rivastigmine (Exelon) | Cholinesterase inhibitor |
Memantine extended-release and donepezil (Namzaric) | N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor and acetylcholinesterase inhibitor |
Drug | Function |
---|---|
Carbidopa-levodopa (Sinemet, Parcopa, Rytary, Duopa) | Dopamine decarboxylase inhibitor/DA precursor |
Levodopa (Inbrija) | Dopamine precursor |
Entacapone (Comtan) | Cathechol-o-methyltransferase inhibitor inhibits the breakdown of Levodopa |
Tolcapone (Tasmar) | Cathechol-o-methyltransferase inhibitor inhibits the breakdown of Levodopa |
Opicapone (Ongentys) | Cathechol-o-methyltransferase inhibitor inhibits the breakdown of Levodopa |
Carbidopa/Levodopa Entacapone (Stalevo) | Dopamine decarboxylase inhibitor/DA precursor/COMT inhibitor |
Pramipexole (Mirapex) | Dopamine agonist |
Ropinirole (Requip) | Dopamine agonist |
Apomorphine (Apokyn, Kynmobi) | Dopamine agonist |
Rotigotine (Neupro) | Dopamine agonist |
Selegiline (Eldepryl, Zelapar) | Monoamino oxidase-B inhibitor; inhibits breakdown of dopamine |
Rasagiline (Azilect) | Monoamino oxidase B inhibitor; inhibits breakdown of dopamine |
Safinamide (Xadago) | Monoamino oxidase-B inhibitor; inhibits breakdown of dopamine |
Amantadine (Symmetrel, Gocovri, Osmolex) | Mixed mechanisms, including N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonism |
Istradefylline (Nourianz) | Adenosine 2A antagonist |
Trihexyphenidyl (Artane) | Anticholinergic |
Benztropine (Cogentin) | Anticholinergic |
Nanoparticle | Disease | Therapeutic | Therapeutic Effect | Cell Entry | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gold | PD | pDNA incorporated exogenous interfering RNA (RNAi) and Nerve growth factor (NGF) | Inhibition of PC12 cells and substantia nigra striatum dopaminergic neuronal apoptosis | Nerve growth factor (NGF) endocytosis | [134] |
Gold | AD | 3.3 nm L- and D-glutathione | Inhibition of Aβ42 aggregation | Chiral nanoparticle endocytosis across the BBB | [133] |
Silver | PD | Citrate cap | Up-regulation of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and Ag2S—reducing neurotoxicity | Natural properties of silver penetrate the brain | [135] |
Silver | AD | Lampranthus coccineus and Malephora lutea F. Aizoaceae plant extract | Anticholinesterase and antioxidant activity as a plant-based anti-Alzheimer drug | Natural properties of silver penetrate the brain | [136] |
Selenium | AD | Curcumin-loaded nanospheres | Decrease in amyloid-β plaques in AD lesions | Curcumin’s capability to bind with amyloid b and iron in plaques by intermolecular hydrogen bonds without any additional chemical linkers | [137] |
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Jagaran, K.; Singh, M. Nanomedicine for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 9082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22169082
Jagaran K, Singh M. Nanomedicine for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(16):9082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22169082
Chicago/Turabian StyleJagaran, Keelan, and Moganavelli Singh. 2021. "Nanomedicine for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Focus on Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 16: 9082. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22169082