Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines for Short- and Long-Term Immunity: A General Overview for the Pandemic Contrast
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. COVID-19 Variants and Antibodies’ Response
2.1. Variants of Concern (VOC)
2.2. Variants of Interest (VOI)
2.3. Variants under Monitoring (VUM, Formerly Called “Alerts for Further Monitoring”)
3. Mechanisms of Relationships between ABO Blood Groups and COVID-19
4. Spike Protein Interactions
5. Serological IgM, IgG, and IgA
- The antigenic test is performed by a swab on nasal mucosa or oropharyngeal region by identifying SARS-CoV2-specific Spike glycoproteins (S). Nevertheless, this technique may provide false negatives. In many cases, the test should be subjected to a repetition in the following days [130].
- The molecular test, instead, identifies SARS-CoV-2 genomes in the substance and are present in swabs [130].
6. Anti-Spike and Anti-N Difference
7. COVID-19 Syndrome: Diagnosis and Treatment Procedure at Home and in Emergency
- The less severe clinical form, which includes the paucisymptomatic condition characterized by anosmia and ageusia; the oligosymptomatic form, which includes minor respiratory problems, nasal congestion, conjunctivitis, pharyngodynia, cough, and gastrointestinal problems (abdominal aches, vomiting, and diarrhea), and neurological symptoms such as dizziness, syncope, and headache [155];
- Clinical variants characterized by greater concerns and different stages. At the beginning, there are rapidly evolving pictures of the minor forms, described as follows: interstitial alveolar pneumonia with acute hypoxemic-hypercapnic pneumonia that may evolve to the most serious forms including sepsis, hypovolemic shock, and eventually multi-organ appearance syndrome (MODS).
- High risk clinical pictures are essential criteria for emergency clinical diagnosis, and they are as follows: alteration of the sensory, tachypnea HR > 30 beats/min, dyspnea, dehydration, oligo-anuria, very high fever (>39 °C) and protracted > 7 days, persistent dry cough, hoarse voice, anosmia/ageusia, intense, exhaustion, extreme fatigue, and body aches [156,157,158].
COVID-19 SYNDROME TREATMENT | |
---|---|
RISK FACTORS
| CLINICAL SEVERITY LEVELS OF ARDS
|
LABORATORY RESULTS
| EMERGENCY THERAPY Respiratory stabilization On the territory
|
PHARMACOLOGICAL THERAPY
| HOME THERAPY
|
8. Key Points in COVID-19 Patient Management
9. Major Complications of COVID-19
- Patient with P/F < 350 mmHg with CPAP or PEEP > 5 cm H2O should undergo NIMV;
- Patient with P/F < 200 mmHg with CPAP or PEEP > 5 cm H2O should be evaluated for early intubation;
- Patient with P/F < 100 mmHg with CPAP or PEEP > 5 cm H2O must be immediately intubated and subjected to cycles of pronation;
10. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines
10.1. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine Candidate Phase III Clinical Trials
10.1.1. Vaccine BBIBP-CorV; Developer: Beijing Institute of Biological Prodducts/Sinopharm
10.1.2. Vaccine Untitled; Developer: Wuhan Institute of Biological Products/Sinopharm
10.1.3. Vaccine: Ad5-nCoV; Developer: CanSino Biological Inc./Beijing Institute of Biotechnology
10.1.4. Vaccine: CoronaVac (PiCoVacc); Developer: Sinovac
10.1.5. Vaccine: Sputnik V; Developer: Gamaleya Research Institute
10.1.6. Vaccine: NVX-CoV2373; Developer: Novavax
10.2. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines Phase IV Trials
10.2.1. Vaccine: BNT162b2; Developer: Pfizer/BioNTech/Fosun
10.2.2. Vaccine: mRNA-1273; Developer: Moderna/NIAID
10.2.3. Vaccine: AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19); Developer: Oxford University and AstraZeneca
10.2.4. Vaccine: Ad26.COV2-S; Developer: Janssen Pharmaceutical
10.2.5. Mucosal Vaccine Platform for COVID-19 Vaccine Development
10.2.6. Vaxart Vaccine—Developer: Vaxart
10.2.7. IosBio’s (Sabilitech’s) OraPro-COVID-19 Vaccine
10.3. COVID-19 Vaccine and Antibody Response in Children
- In individuals 16 years of age and older;
- In cases of emergency (EUA):
- -
- Prevent COVID-19 in individuals 12 through 15 years;
- -
- Administer a third dose to immunocompromised individuals over 12 years of age.
10.4. COVID-19 Vaccines for Moderately to Severely Immunocompromised People
- People being treated for cancer;
- People being treated with immunosuppressive drugs following organ transplantation;
- People being treated with immunosuppressive drugs following stem-cell transplantation (within 2 years);
- People with immunodeficiency as a result of syndromes such as DiGeorge syndrome and Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome;
- People with advanced or untreated HIV infections;
- Patients with suppressed immune responses following high-dose corticosteroid therapy.
11. Vaccine’s Implications in Pregnancy and Fertility
12. Side Effects and Post-Vaccination Pathologies Related to Antibody Titers
13. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
List of Abbreviations
ACE2 | angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 |
ACE | angiotensin-converting enzyme |
ACE1 | angiotensin-converting enzyme 1 |
AIFA | Agenzia Italiana del Farmaco |
Alpha | English variant B.1.1.7 |
Anti-RBD IgG | Immunogloublin G anti receptor-binding domain |
Anti-Spike | test igg anti-Spike |
BAU | unità arbitrarie vincolanti |
Beta variant | (former of South Africa) |
BMI | body mass index |
CI | intervallo di confidenza |
CLIAs | chemiluminescence immunoassay |
CRP | C-reactive protein |
Delta | Indian variant B.1.617.2 |
ELISA | enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
EMA | European Medicines Agency |
ETA | variant B.1.525; date of designation Mar-2021 |
Gamma | Brasilian variant P.1 |
hACE2 receptor | human angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2 receptor |
IFN | Interferon |
IgA | Immunoglobulins A |
IgG | Immunoglobulins G |
IgM | Immunoglobulins M |
IOTA | variant B.1.526; earliest documented samples USA (Nov-2020), date of designation Mar-2021 |
IQR | interquartile range |
KAPPA | Indian variant B.1.617.1 |
LAMBA | variant C.37; earliest documented samples Peru (Aug-2020), date of designation June 2021 |
LFIAs | lateral flow immunoassays. |
MERS | Middle East Respiratory Syndrome |
MMF | mycophenolate mofetil |
MPA | mycophenolic acid |
MPPDH | inosine-5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase |
NAAT | nucleic acid amplification test |
NGS | Next-Generation Sequencing |
bNAbs | Broadly neutralizing antibodies |
N-IgG | anti-N-IgG |
PRD | viral prion-like domain |
RBD | receptor-binding domain |
RBDs | receptor-binding domains |
RDB-IgG | receptor-binding domain neutralizing antibodies |
RT-PCR | real-time PCR Polymerase chain reaction |
S | Spike glycoprotein |
SARS-CoV-1 | Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 1 |
SARS-CoV-2 | Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (COVID-19) |
SARSr-CoV Rp3 | salivar protein similar to fused 8a and 8b SARS-CoV Beta Coronavirus |
S-IgG | anti-Spike IgG |
thio-NAD | thionicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide |
TNF | tumor necrosis factor |
VIPIT | prothrombotic immune thrombocytopenia |
VOC | variants of concern |
VOI | variants of interest |
ZETA | variant P.2 |
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Codification | Vector Lineages | Clades | Nextstrain Clades | Aminoacid Changes | Emerging Regions and Period of Strain Detection | Date of First Detection |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alpha | B.1.1.7 | GRY | 20I.V1 | +S: 484K +S: 452R | United Kingdom, Sep-2020 | 18-Dec-2020 |
Beta | B.1.351 | GH/501Y.V2 | 20H.V2 | +S: L18F | South Africa, May-2020 | 18-Dec-2020 |
Gamma | P.1 | GR/501Y.V3 | 20J.V3 | +S: 681H | Brazil, Nov-2020 | 11-Jan-2021 |
Delta | B.1.617.2 | G/478K.V1 | 21; 21I; 21J | +S: 417N +S: 484K | India, Oct-2020 | VOI: 4-Apr-2021 VOC: 11-May-2021 |
Omicron | B.1.1.529 (Subvariants: BA 1, BA 2, BA 3, BA 4 and BA 5) | GR/484A | 21K | -+S: L452R -+S: F486V -+S: R493Q | Multiple countries, Nov-2021 | VUM: 24-Nov-2021 VOC: 26-Nov-2021 Sub BA 4/5: January 2022 |
Codification | Vector Lineages | Clades | Nextstrain Clades | Emerging Regions and Period of Strain Detection | Date of First Detection |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lambda | C.37 | GR/452Q.V1 | 21G | Peru, Dec-2020 | 14-Jun-2021 |
Mu | B.1.621 | GH | 21H | Colombia, Jan-2021 | 30-Aug-2021 |
Vector Lineages | Clades | Nextstrain Clades | Emerging Regions and Period of Strain Detection | Date of First Detection |
---|---|---|---|---|
R.1 | GR | - | Multiple countrie Jan-2021 | 07-Apr-2021 |
B.1.466.2 | GH | - | Indonesia, Nov-2020 | 28-Apr-2021 |
B.1.1.318 | GR | - | Multiple countries, Jan-2021 | 02-Jun-2021 |
B.1.1.519 | GR | 20B/S.732A | Multiple countries, Nov-2020 | 02-Jun-2021 |
C.36.3 | GR | - | Multiple countries, Jan-2021 | 16-Jun-2021 |
B.1.214.2 | G | - | Multiple countries, Nov-2020 | 30-Jun-2021 |
B.1.427 B.1.429 | GH/452R.V1 | 21C | United States of America, Mar-2020 | VOI: 5-Mar-2021 VUM: 6-Jul-2021 |
B.1.1.523 | GR | - | Multiple countries, May-2020 | 14-Jul-2021 |
B.1.619 | G | 20A/S.126A | Multiple countries May-2020 | 14-Jul-2021 |
B.1.620 | G | - | Multiple countries, November 2020 | 14-Jul-2021 |
C.1.2 | GR | - | South Africa, May 2021 | 01-Sep-2021 |
B.1.617.1 | G/452R.V3 | 21B | India, Oct-2020 | VOI: 4-Apr-2021 VUM: 20-Sep-2021 |
B.1.526 | GH/253G.V1 | 21F | United States of America, Nov-2020 | VOI: 24-Mar-2021 VUM: 20-Sep-2021 |
B.1.525 | G/484K.V3 | 21D | Multiple countries, Dec-2020 | VOI:17-Mar-2021 VUM: 20-Sep-2021 |
B.1.630 | GH | - | Dominican Republic, Mar-2021 | 12-Oct-2021 |
Coronovac Sinovac Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Virus Inactivating Agent: β-propiolactone |
Storage temperature | 2–8 °C |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Two doses 0.5 mL (~14 days) |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 50.4% |
Variant Efficacy | B.1.1.7 B.1.351; P1 |
Sputnik V Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | dsDNA Vaccine Adenovirus Delivered AD26/AD5 |
Storage temperature | Long-Term Storage (2 years): −18 °C Short-Term Storage (3 month): 2–8 °C |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Two doses 0.5 mL (~28 days) |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 91% |
Variant Efficacy | B.1.1.7 B.1.351; P1 |
PLATFORM | VACCINE | DEVELOPER |
---|---|---|
RNA vaccine | BNT162 | Pfizer/BioNTech/Fosun |
RNA vaccine | Spikevax (COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna) | Moderna/NIAID |
Non-replicating viral vector | Vaxzevria ChAdOx1-S | Astrazeneca AB |
Non-replicating viral vector | Ad26.COV2-S | Janssen-Cilag International NV |
BNT162b2 Pfizer/BioNTech Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | mRNA Vaccine Lipid Nanoparticles Delivered |
Storage temperature | Long-term Storage (6 month): −70 °C Short-Term Storage (5 days): 2–8 °C |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Two doses 0.3 mL (~21 days) |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 95% |
Variant Efficacy | B.1.1.7; B.1.135; P1; B.1.429; B.1.617.2 |
m-RNA-1273 Moderna/NIAID Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | mRNA Vaccine Lipid Nanoparticles Delivered |
Storage temperature | Long-Term Storage (6 month): −20 °C Short-Term Storage (30 days): 2–8 °C |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Two doses 0.5 mL (~28 days) |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 94.5% |
Variant Efficacy | B.1.1.7; B.1.135; P.1; B.1.429 B.1.617.2 |
AZD1222 (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) Astrazeneca Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | dsDNA Vaccine Adenovirus Delivered |
Storage temperature | about 2–8 °C (6 month) |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Two doses 0.5 mL (12 weeks) |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 81.3% |
Variant Efficacy | B.1.1.7 B.1.135 P.1B.1.429 B.1.617.2 |
Ad26.COV-S Janssen Pharmaceutical Vaccine | |
---|---|
General Characteristics | |
Type of Vaccine | dsDNA Vaccine Adenovirus Delivered |
Storage temperature | Long-Term Storage (2 years): −20 °C Short-Term Storage (3 month): 2–8 °C |
Vaccine Administration and dosages | Single dose 0.5 mL |
Phase III Efficacy rate | 66% |
Variant Efficacy | 72% B.1.1.7. 57% B.1.135 & P.1 B.1.617.2 |
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Inchingolo, A.D.; Malcangi, G.; Ceci, S.; Patano, A.; Corriero, A.; Vimercati, L.; Azzollini, D.; Marinelli, G.; Coloccia, G.; Piras, F.; et al. Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines for Short- and Long-Term Immunity: A General Overview for the Pandemic Contrast. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 8485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158485
Inchingolo AD, Malcangi G, Ceci S, Patano A, Corriero A, Vimercati L, Azzollini D, Marinelli G, Coloccia G, Piras F, et al. Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines for Short- and Long-Term Immunity: A General Overview for the Pandemic Contrast. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(15):8485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158485
Chicago/Turabian StyleInchingolo, Alessio Danilo, Giuseppina Malcangi, Sabino Ceci, Assunta Patano, Alberto Corriero, Luigi Vimercati, Daniela Azzollini, Grazia Marinelli, Giovanni Coloccia, Fabio Piras, and et al. 2022. "Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines for Short- and Long-Term Immunity: A General Overview for the Pandemic Contrast" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 15: 8485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23158485