Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown in Neuroinflammation: Current In Vitro Models
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Neurovascular Unit in Health
2.1. Microvascular Endothelial Cells
2.2. Pericytes
2.3. Astrocytes
2.4. Neurons
2.5. Microglia
2.6. Oligodendrocytes
3. Main Players in Neuroinflammation
3.1. Cellular Components
3.2. Soluble Components
4. In Vitro Modeling
- What is the research question and the purpose of the experiment?
- What basic biological requirements does the model need to fulfill?
- What cells and what ECM are needed for the assays that are to be performed?
- What time can be invested in each approach?
- Does it need to be applicable for high-throughput screening?
- Are there additional devices that are needed for the model?
- How long are the cells cultured, and when is the endpoint?
4.1. Cell Types and Sources
4.2. Three-Dimensional ECM
4.3. Transwell
4.4. 3D Models
4.4.1. Microfluidic Models
4.4.2. 3D Bioprinting
4.4.3. Cell Aggregates (Spheroids and Organoids)
4.5. Model Validation
4.5.1. Cell Identity and Viability
4.5.2. TJ Formation and Permeability
5. Disease-Specific Modeling of Neuroinflammation
5.1. Neurological Autoimmune Diseases
5.2. CNS Infections
5.3. Acute CNS Injuries
5.3.1. Stroke
5.3.2. Traumatic Brain Injury
5.3.3. Epilepsy
5.4. CNS Tumors
5.5. Neurodegeneration
5.5.1. Alzheimer’s Disease
5.5.2. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
5.5.3. Parkinson’s Disease
5.5.4. Huntington’s Disease
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
A | Amyloid-beta |
AD | Alzheimer’s disease |
ALS | Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis |
AQP-4 | Aquaporin-4 |
BBB | Blood–brain barrier |
BM | Basement membrane |
BMEC | Brain microvascular endothelial cell |
CCL | C-C motif ligand |
CNS | Central nervous system |
DAMP | Danger-associated molecular pattern |
ECM | Extracellular matrix |
GABA | Gamma-aminobutyric acid |
HIV | Human immunodeficiency virus |
IL | Interleukin |
iBMEC | Induced brain microvascular endothelial cell-like cell |
iPSC | Induced pluripotent stem cell |
LPS | Lipopolysaccharide |
MMP | Matrix metalloproteinase |
MOG | Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein |
MOGAD | MOG-associated antibody disease |
MS | Multiple sclerosis |
NMDARE | N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis |
NMOSD | Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders |
NVU | Neurovascular unit |
OGD | Oxygen-glucose deprivation |
OPC | Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell |
P-gp | P-glycoprotein |
PD | Parkinson’s disease |
PDMS | Polydimethylsiloxane |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SARS-CoV-2 | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 |
TBI | Traumatic brain injury |
TEER | Trans-endothelial electrical resistance |
TGF- | Transforming growth factor-beta |
Th | T helper |
TJ | Tight junction |
TNF- | Tumor necrosis factor-alpha |
VEGF | Vascular endothelial growth factor |
ZO-1 | Zonula occludens-1 |
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Disease | Key Features | References |
---|---|---|
CNS Autoimmune Diseases |
| [189,190] |
Multiple Sclerosis |
| [16,191,192,193] |
NMDARE |
| [190,194] |
NMOSD |
| [189,195,196] |
MOGAD |
| [189,197] |
CNS Infections | ||
Bacterial Infections |
| [198,199] |
Viral Infections |
| [200,201] |
Acute CNS Injuries | ||
Stroke |
| [47,81,202,203,204] |
Traumatic Brain Injury |
| [75,203,205,206] |
Epilepsy |
| [203,207] |
CNS Tumors | ||
Primary Tumors |
| [12,208] |
Brain Metastases |
| [152,203] |
Neurodegeneration | ||
Alzheimer’s Disease |
| [16,209] |
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis |
| [210,211,212] |
Parkinson’s Disease |
| [213,214,215,216] |
Huntington’s Disease |
| [108,217,218,219] |
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Brandl, S.; Reindl, M. Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown in Neuroinflammation: Current In Vitro Models. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 12699. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612699
Brandl S, Reindl M. Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown in Neuroinflammation: Current In Vitro Models. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(16):12699. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612699
Chicago/Turabian StyleBrandl, Sarah, and Markus Reindl. 2023. "Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown in Neuroinflammation: Current In Vitro Models" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 16: 12699. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241612699