Prolactin: A Mammalian Stress Hormone and Its Role in Cutaneous Pathophysiology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. To What Extent Is PRL a “Stress Hormone?”
2.2. PRL in Cutaneous Physiology—Lessons from the Hair Follicle
2.3. PRL and Alopecia Areata
2.4. PRL and Autoimmune Blistering Disorders
2.5. PRL and Lupus
2.6. PRL and Psoriasis
2.7. PRL and Wound Healing
2.8. PRL and the Sebaceous Gland
2.9. Future Directions
3. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Slominski, A.; Wortsman, J.; Tuckey, R.C.; Paus, R. Differential expression of HPA axis homolog in the skin. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2007, 265–266, 143–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ascsillan, A.A.; Kemeny, L.V. The Skin-Brain Axis: From UV and Pigmentation to Behaviour Modulation. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 6199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jozic, I.; Stojadinovic, O.; Kirsner, R.S.F.; Tomic-Canic, M. Skin under the (Spot)-Light: Cross-Talk with the Central Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2015, 135, 1469–1471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Slominski, A.T.; Zmijewski, M.A.; Zbytek, B.; Tobin, D.J.; Theoharides, T.C.; Rivier, J. Key role of CRF in the skin stress response system. Endocr. Rev. 2013, 34, 827–884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Slominski, A.; Wortsman, J. Neuroendocrinology of the skin. Endocr. Rev. 2000, 21, 457–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rousseau, K.; Kauser, S.; Pritchard, L.E.; Warhurst, A.; Oliver, R.L.; Slominski, A.; Wei, E.T.; Thody, A.J.; Tobin, D.J.; White, A. Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), the ACTH/melanocortin precursor, is secreted by human epidermal keratinocytes and melanocytes and stimulates melanogenesis. FASEB J. 2007, 21, 1844–1856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Slominski, A.; Wortsman, J.; Pisarchik, A.; Zbytek, B.; Linton, E.A.; Mazurkiewicz, J.E.; Wei, E.T. Cutaneous expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), urocortin, and CRH receptors. FASEB J. 2001, 15, 1678–1693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Slominski, A.; Heasley, D.; Mazurkiewicz, J.E.; Ermak, G.; Baker, J.; Carlson, J.A. Expression of proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-derived melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) peptides in skin of basal cell carcinoma patients. Hum. Pathol. 1999, 30, 208–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Slominski, A.T.; Botchkarev, V.; Choudhry, M.; Fazal, N.; Fechner, K.; Furkert, J.; Krause, E.; Roloff, B.; Sayeed, M.; Wei, E.; et al. Cutaneous expression of CRH and CRH-R. Is there a “skin stress response system?”. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1999, 885, 287–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ito, N.; Ito, T.; Kromminga, A.; Bettermann, A.; Takigawa, M.; Kees, F.; Straub, R.H.; Paus, R. Human hair follicles display a functional equivalent of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and synthesize cortisol. FASEB J. 2005, 19, 1332–1334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ito, N.; Sugawara, K.; Bodó, E.; Takigawa, M.; van Beek, N.; Ito, T.; Paus, R. Corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulates the in situ generation of mast cells from precursors in the human hair follicle mesenchyme. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2010, 130, 995–1004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ben-Jonathan, N.; Mershon, J.L.; Allen, D.L.; Steinmetz, R.W. Extrapituitary prolactin: Distribution, regulation, functions, and clinical aspects. Endocr. Rev. 1996, 17, 639–669. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Foitzik, K.; Langan, E.A.; Paus, R. Prolactin and the skin: A dermatological perspective on an ancient pleiotropic peptide hormone. J. Investig. Dermatol. 2009, 129, 1071–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marano, R.J.; Ben-Jonathan, N. Minireview: Extrapituitary prolactin: An update on the distribution, regulation, and functions. Mol. Endocrinol. 2014, 28, 622–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Langan, E.A.; Foitzik-Lau, K.; Goffin, V.; Ramot, Y.; Paus, R. Prolactin: An emerging force along the cutaneous-endocrine axis. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2010, 21, 569–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Paus, R. Does prolactin play a role in skin biology and pathology? Med. Hypotheses 1991, 36, 33–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shuster, S.; Thody, A.J.; Goolamali, S.K.; Burton, J.L.; Plummer, N.; Bates, D. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone and parkinsonism. Lancet 1973, 1, 463–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meszaros, Z.S.; Perl, A.; Faraone, S.V. Psychiatric symptoms in systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2012, 73, 993–1001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lavalle, C.; Loyo, E.; Paniagua, R.; Bermudez, J.; Herrera, J.; Graef, A.; Gonzalezbarcena, D.; Fraga, A. Correlation study between prolactin and androgens in male patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 1987, 14, 268–272. [Google Scholar]
- Handjani, F.; Saki, N.; Ahrari, I.; Ebrahimi, M.; Khorrami, M.M.; Nematollahi, P. Serum prolactin levels in psoriasis vulgaris. ISRN Dermatol. 2014, 2014, 586049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, H.; Li, X.; Xue, F.; Xia, Q.; Zhao, X.; Wang, D.; Chen, L.; Cao, H.; Xu, H.; Shen, X.; et al. Local production of prolactin in lesions may play a pathogenic role in psoriatic patients and imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like mouse model. Exp. Dermatol. 2018, 27, 1245–1253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Macotela, Y.; Aguilar, M.B.; Guzmán-Morales, J.; Rivera, J.C.; Zermeño, C.; López-Barrera, F.; Nava, G.; Lavalle, C.; de la Escalera, G.M.; Clapp, C. Matrix metalloproteases from chondrocytes generate an antiangiogenic 16 kDa prolactin. J. Cell Sci. 2006, 119 Pt 9, 1790–1800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meena, A.K.; Mendiratta, V.; Goyal, R.; Bisherwal, K.; Yadav, V.; Prasadh, V. Biochemical and hormonal abnormalities in adult female acne. J. Cosmet. Dermatol. 2023, 22, 1392–1399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Szybiak, W.; Jarzemska, M.; Kowalczyk, M.; Sadowska-Przytocka, A.; Więckowska, B.; Żaba, R.; Lacka, K. Selected hormone levels and lipid abnormalities in patients with acne vulgaris. Postepy Dermatol. Alergol. 2023, 40, 798–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sardana, K.; Bansal, P.; Sharma, L.K.; Garga, U.C.; Vats, G. A study comparing the clinical and hormonal profile of late onset and persistent acne in adult females. Int. J. Dermatol. 2020, 59, 428–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feily, A.; Taheri, T.; Meier-Schiesser, B.; Rhinehart, D.P.; Sobhanian, S.; Colon-Diaz, M.; Feily, A.; Ramirez-Fort, M.K. The effect of low-dose isotretinoin therapy on serum androgen levels in women with acne vulgaris. Int. J. Womens Dermatol. 2020, 6, 102–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bosnić, Z.; Šarić, B.; Vučić, D.; Kovačević, B.; Marinić, N.; Volarić, M.; Majnarić, L.T. Alopecia in preexisting autoimmune thyroid disease in family medicine practice: Can hyperprolactinemia induce hair loss? A case report. Acta Dermatovenerol. Alp. Pannonica Adriat. 2021, 30, 75–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El Tahlawi, S.M.; El Eishi, N.H.; Kahhal, R.K.; Hegazy, R.A.; El Hanafy, G.M.; Hay, R.M.A.; Shaker, O.G. Do Prolactin and its Receptor Play a Role in Alopecia Areata? Indian J. Dermatol. 2018, 63, 241–245. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Ayanoğlu, B.T.; Koryürek, Ö.M.; Başkara, S.Y. Serum prolactin levels in atopic dermatitis and the relationship with disease severity. Arch. Argent. Pediatr. 2017, 115, 493–496. [Google Scholar]
- Nasiri, S.; Dadkhahfar, S.; Mansouri, P.; Rahmani-Khah, E.; Mozafari, N. Evaluation of serum level of sex hormones in women with frontal fibrosing alopecia in comparison to healthy controls. Dermatol. Ther. 2020, 33, e13842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carmina, E.; Azziz, R.; Bergfeld, W.; Escobar-Morreale, H.F.; Futterweit, W.; Huddleston, H.; Lobo, R.; Olsen, E. Female Pattern Hair Loss and Androgen Excess: A Report from the Multidisciplinary Androgen Excess and PCOS Committee. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2019, 104, 2875–2891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Futterweit, W.; Dunaif, A.; Yeh, H.C.; Kingsley, P. The prevalence of hyperandrogenism in 109 consecutive female patients with diffuse alopecia. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 1988, 19 Pt 1, 831–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lutz, G. Hair loss and hyperprolactinemia in women. Derm.-Endocrinol. 2012, 4, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gupta, A.; Mohan, R.P.; Gupta, S.; Malik, S.S.; Goel, S.; Kamarthi, N. Roles of serum uric acid, prolactin levels, and psychosocial factors in oral lichen planus. J. Oral Sci. 2017, 59, 139–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mortazavi, H.; Saeidi, V.; Balighi, K.; Esmaili, N.; Teimourpour, A.; Daneshpazhooh, M.; Hamzelou, S.; Saffarian, Z.; Fazli, J.T. Serologic Biomarkers in Pemphigus Monitoring: C-reactive Protein, Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor, and Prolactin Levels Versus Autoantibody Assays. Iran. J. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2023, 22, 312–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lajevardi, V.; Hallaji, Z.; Daneshpazhooh, M.; Ghandi, N.; Shekari, P.; Khani, S. Evaluation of prolactin levels in patients with newly diagnosed pemphigus vulgaris and its correlation with pemphigus disease area index. Int. J. Womens Dermatol. 2016, 2, 53–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yousefi, M.; Mozafari, N.; Hosseini, M.S.; Gholamin, S.; Razavi, S.; Namazi, M.R.; Younespour, S. Evaluating serum prolactin and serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in patients with pemphigus. Int. J. Dermatol. 2016, 55, e332–e337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iraji, F.; Tajmirriahi, N.; Momeni, I.; Jamshidi, K.; Hashemzehi, F.; Siadat, A.H.; Esfahani, A.A. Do serum prolactin levels correlate with antibodies against desmoglein in pemphigus vulgaris? Adv. Biomed. Res. 2016, 5, 206. [Google Scholar]
- Morar, I.I.; Tabăran, F.A.; Mocan, T.; Jianu, E.M.; Orăsan, M.S.; Pop, A.D.; Orăsan, R.I. Immunohistochemical study of psoriatic plaques and perilesional skin in psoriasis vulgaris patients: A pilot study. Exp. Ther. Med. 2019, 18, 888–894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- El-Khateeb, E.A.; Zuel-Fakkar, N.M.; Eid, S.M.; Abdul-Wahab, S.E. Prolactin level is significantly elevated in lesional skin of patients with psoriasis. Int. J. Dermatol. 2011, 50, 693–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.H.; Song, G.G. Association between circulating prolactin levels and psoriasis and its correlation with disease severity: A meta-analysis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2018, 43, 27–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Husakova, M.; Lippert, J.; Stolfa, J.; Sedova, L.; Arenberger, P.; Lacinova, Z.; Pavelka, K. Elevated serum prolactin levels as a marker of inflammatory arthritis in psoriasis vulgaris. Biomed. Pap. 2015, 159, 562–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Manning, A.; Rassie, K.; Rivalland, G. A case of hyperprolactinaemia in a patient with metastatic melanoma. Melanoma Res. 2021, 31, 277–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wu, Y.; Li, M.L.; Han, H.J.; Huang, L.J.; He, Y. Elevated plasma/serum levels of prolactin in patients with systemic sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine 2020, 99, e22239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sabry, M.K.; Farres, M.N.; Melek, N.A.; Arafa, N.A.; Ohanessian, A.A. Prolactin and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate: Are they related to the severity of chronic urticaria? Arch. Med. Res. 2013, 44, 21–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Soliman, M.; Khattab, F.M.; Ebrahim, H.M.; Nasr, M. Serum prolactin level in chronic urticaria: Is bromocriptine inducing remission in chronic urticaria? J. Dermatol. Treat. 2018, 29, 826–830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.A.; Fink, T.; Paus, R. Is prolactin a negative neuroendocrine regulator of human skin re-epithelisation after wounding? Arch. Dermatol. Res. 2018, 310, 833–841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ben-Jonathan, N.; LaPensee, C.R.; LaPensee, E.W. What can we learn from rodents about prolactin in humans? Endocr. Rev. 2008, 29, 1–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leonard, B.E.; Myint, A. The psychoneuroimmunology of depression. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2009, 24, 165–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leistner, C.; Menke, A. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and stress. Handb. Clin. Neurol. 2020, 175, 55–64. [Google Scholar]
- Vermeulen, A.; Suy, E.; Rubens, R. Effect of prolactin on plasma DHEA (s) levels. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1977, 44, 1222–1225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Glasow, A.; Breidert, M.; Haidan, A.; Anderegg, U.; Kelly, P.A.; Bornstein, S.R. Functional aspects of the effect of prolactin (PRL) on adrenal steroidogenesis and distribution of the PRL receptor in the human adrenal gland. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1996, 81, 3103–3111. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Higuchi, K.; Nawata, H.; Maki, T.; Higashizima, M.; Kato, K.; Ibayashi, H. Prolactin has a direct effect on adrenal androgen secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1984, 59, 714–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lalli, E.; Figueiredo, B.C. Prolactin as an adrenocorticotropic hormone: Prolactin signalling is a conserved key regulator of sexually dimorphic adrenal gland function in health and disease. Bioessays 2022, 44, e2200109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kirschbaum, C.; Pirke, K.M.; Hellhammer, D.H. The ‘Trier Social Stress Test’—A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology 1993, 28, 76–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lennartsson, A.K.; Jonsdottir, I.H. Prolactin in response to acute psychosocial stress in healthy men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011, 36, 1530–1539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Atanackovic, D.; Brunner-Weinzierl, M.C.; Kroger, H.; Serke, S.; Deter, H.C. Acute psychological stress simultaneously alters hormone levels, recruitment of lymphocyte subsets, and production of reactive oxygen species. Immunol. Investig. 2002, 31, 73–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gerra, G.; Zaimovic, A.; Mascetti, G.; Gardini, S.; Zambelli, U.; Timpano, M.; Raggi, M.; Brambilla, F. Neuroendocrine responses to experimentally-induced psychological stress in healthy humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2001, 26, 91–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vilar, L.; Vilar, C.F.; Lyra, R.; Freitas, M.D.C. Pitfalls in the Diagnostic Evaluation of Hyperprolactinemia. Neuroendocrinology 2019, 109, 7–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newey, P.J.; Gorvin, C.M.; Cleland, S.J.; Willberg, C.B.; Bridge, M.; Azharuddin, M.; Drummond, R.S.; van der Merwe, P.A.; Klenerman, P.; Bountra, C.; et al. Mutant prolactin receptor and familial hyperprolactinemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2013, 369, 2012–2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glezer, A.; Bronstein, M.D. Hyperprolactinemia. In Endotext; Feingold, K.R., Anawalt, B., Blackman, M.R., Boyce, A., Chrousos, G., Corpas, E., de Herder, W.W., Dhatariya, K., Dungan, K., Hofland, J., et al., Eds.; MDText.com, Inc.: South Dartmouth, MA, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Studerus, E.; Ittig, S.; Beck, K.; Del Cacho, N.; Vila-Badia, R.; Butjosa, A.; Usall, J.; Riecher-Rössler, A. Relation between self-perceived stress, psychopathological symptoms and the stress hormone prolactin in emerging psychosis. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2021, 136, 428–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonzalez-Blanco, L.; Greenhalgh, A.M.D.; Garcia-Rizo, C.; Fernandez-Egea, E.; Miller, B.J.; Kirkpatrick, B. Prolactin concentrations in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia and related disorders: A meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2016, 174, 156–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Delgado-Alvarado, M.; Tordesillas-Gutierrez, D.; Ayesa-Arriola, R.; Canal, M.; de la Foz, V.O.-G.; Labad, J.; Crespo-Facorro, B. Plasma prolactin levels are associated with the severity of illness in drug-naive first-episode psychosis female patients. Arch. Womens Ment. Health 2019, 22, 367–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sundararajan, T.; Tesar, G.E.; Jimenez, X.F. Biomarkers in the diagnosis and study of psychogenic nonepileptic seizures: A systematic review. Seizure 2016, 35, 11–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.Q.; Wen, Y.; Wang, M.M.; Zhang, Y.W.; Fang, Z.X. Prolactin levels as a criterion to differentiate between psychogenic non-epileptic seizures and epileptic seizures: A systematic review. Epilepsy Res. 2021, 169, 106508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Geffen, M.W.L.; Joosten, H.M.H.; Stassen, P.M. Epilepsy under my skin? BMJ Case Rep. 2018, 2018, bcr-2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cacabelos, R. Parkinson’s Disease: From Pathogenesis to Pharmacogenomics. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costanza, M.; Pedotti, R. Prolactin: Friend or Foe in Central Nervous System Autoimmune Inflammation? Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2016, 17, 2026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nitkowska, M.; Tomasiuk, R.; Czyzyk, M.; Friedman, A. Prolactin and sex hormones levels in males with Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2015, 131, 411–416. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhornitsky, S.; Yong, V.W.; Weiss, S.; Metz, L.M. Prolactin in multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. 2013, 19, 15–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burton, J.L.; Shuster, S. Effect of L-dopa on seborrhoea of parkinsonism. Lancet 1970, 2, 19–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shuster, S. Pioneers in dermatology and venereology: An interview with Prof. Sam Shuster. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2018, 32, 1841–1844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.A.; Griffiths, C.E.; Paus, R. Utilizing the hair follicle to dissect the regulation and autocrine/paracrine activities of prolactin in humans. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2012, 302, E1311–E1312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.A.; Hinde, E.; Paus, R. Prolactin as a candidate sebotrop(h)ic hormone? Exp. Dermatol. 2018, 27, 729–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lincoln, G.A. Correlation with changes in horns and pelage, but not reproduction, of seasonal cycles in the secretion of prolactin in rams of wild, feral and domesticated breeds of sheep. J. Reprod. Fertil. 1990, 90, 285–296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santiago-Moreno, J.; Lopez-Sebastian, A.; del Campo, A.; Gonzalez-Bulnes, A.; Picazo, R.; Gomez-Brunet, A. Effect of constant-release melatonin implants and prolonged exposure to a long day photoperiod on prolactin secretion and hair growth in mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon). Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2004, 26, 303–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craven, A.J.; Ormandy, C.J.; Robertson, F.G.; Wilkins, R.J.; Kelly, P.A.; Nixon, A.J.; Pearson, A.J. Prolactin signaling influences the timing mechanism of the hair follicle: Analysis of hair growth cycles in prolactin receptor knockout mice. Endocrinology 2001, 142, 2533–2539. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craven, A.J.; Nixon, A.J.; Ashby, M.G.; Ormandy, C.J.; Blazek, K.; Wilkins, R.J.; Pearson, A.J. Prolactin delays hair regrowth in mice. J. Endocrinol. 2006, 191, 415–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foitzik, K.; Krause, K.; Nixon, A.J.; Ford, C.A.; Ohnemus, U.; Pearson, A.J.; Paus, R. Prolactin and its receptor are expressed in murine hair follicle epithelium, show hair cycle-dependent expression, and induce catagen. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 162, 1611–1621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kunz, M.; Seifert, B.; Trueb, R.M. Seasonality of hair shedding in healthy women complaining of hair loss. Dermatology 2009, 219, 105–110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Randall, V.A.; Ebling, F.J. Seasonal changes in human hair growth. Br. J. Dermatol. 1991, 124, 146–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foitzik, K.; Krause, K.; Conrad, F.; Nakamura, M.; Funk, W.; Paus, R. Human scalp hair follicles are both a target and a source of prolactin, which serves as an autocrine and/or paracrine promoter of apoptosis-driven hair follicle regression. Am. J. Pathol. 2006, 168, 748–756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gilhar, A.; Etzioni, A.; Paus, R. Alopecia areata. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012, 366, 1515–1525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petukhova, L.; Duvic, M.; Hordinsky, M.; Norris, D.; Price, V.; Shimomura, Y.; Kim, H.; Singh, P.; Lee, A.; Chen, W.V.; et al. Genome-wide association study in alopecia areata implicates both innate and adaptive immunity. Nature 2010, 466, 113–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paus, R.; Arck, P. Neuroendocrine perspectives in alopecia areata: Does stress play a role? J. Investig. Dermatol. 2009, 129, 1324–1326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gonul, M.; Gul, U.; Cakmak, S.; Kilinc, C.; Kilinc, S. Prolactin levels in the patients with alopecia areata. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2009, 23, 1343–1344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klein, B.; Treudler, R.; Simon, J.C. JAK-inhibitors in dermatology—Small molecules, big impact? Overview of the mechanism of action, previous study results and potential adverse effects. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 2022, 20, 19–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gilhar, A.; Keren, A.; Paus, R. JAK inhibitors and alopecia areata. Lancet 2019, 393, 318–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ramot, Y.; Biro, T.; Tiede, S.; To’th, B.Z.I.; Langan, E.A.; Sugawara, K.; Foitzik, K.; Ingber, A.; Goffin, V.; Langbein, L. Prolactin—A novel neuroendocrine regulator of human keratin expression in situ. FASEB J. 2010, 24, 1768–1779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Legoux, A.; Lambert, D.; Laurent, R.; Portier, H.; Mavel, A. Herpes gestationis: Immunologic findings. Sem. Hop. 1982, 58, 2526–2534. [Google Scholar]
- Goldberg, I.; Ingher, A.; Brenner, S. Pemphigus vulgaris triggered by rifampin and emotional stress. Skinmed 2004, 3, 294. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Kasperkiewicz, M.; Ellebrecht, C.T.; Takahashi, H.; Yamagami, J.; Zillikens, D.; Payne, A.S.; Amagai, M. Pemphigus. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2017, 3, 17026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ruocco, V.; Ruocco, E.; Lo Schiavo, A.; Brunetti, G.; Guerrera, L.P.; Wolf, R. Pemphigus: Etiology, pathogenesis, and inducing or triggering factors: Facts and controversies. Clin. Dermatol. 2013, 31, 374–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tamir, A.; Ophir, J.; Brenner, S. Pemphigus vulgaris triggered by emotional stress. Dermatology 1994, 189, 210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tavakolpour, S. Pemphigus trigger factors: Special focus on pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 2018, 310, 95–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khandpur, S.; Reddy, B.S. An unusual association of pemphigus vulgaris with hyperprolactinemia. Int. J. Dermatol. 2002, 41, 696–699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fallahzadeh, M.K.; Lashkarizadeh, H.; Kamali-Sarvestani, E.; Namazi, M.R. Elevation of serum prolactin levels in patients with pemphigus vulgaris: A novel finding with practical implications. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2010, 62, 1071–1072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lavaee, F.; Rezazadeh, F.; Saki, N.; Tavazo, Z.; Baghaei, S. Evaluation of Sex Hormone Levels in Patients with Pemphigus Vulgaris in Comparison to the Healthy Population. Biomed. Res. Int. 2021, 2021, 9947706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Borba, V.V.; Zandman-Goddard, G.; Shoenfeld, Y. Prolactin and Autoimmunity. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eli, I.M.; Raheja, A.; Corn, H.J.; Simmons, D.L.; Palmer, C.A.; Couldwell, W.T. Sellar Wegener Granulomatosis Masquerading as Cabergoline-Resistant Prolactinoma. World Neurosurg. 2016, 95, 622.e1–622.e5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zucchi, D.; Elefante, E.; Schilirò, D.; Signorini, V.; Trentin, F.; Bortoluzzi, A.; Tani, C. One year in review 2022: Systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 2022, 40, 4–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharif, K.; Watad, A.; Coplan, L.; Lichtbroun, B.; Krosser, A.; Lichtbroun, M.; Bragazzi, N.L.; Amital, H.; Afek, A.; Shoenfeld, Y. The role of stress in the mosaic of autoimmunity: An overlooked association. Autoimmun. Rev. 2018, 17, 967–983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Zhao, R.; Gu, C.; Gu, Z.; Li, L.; Li, Z.; Dong, C.; Zhu, J.; Fu, T.; Gao, J. The impact of systemic lupus erythematosus on health-related quality of life assessed using the SF-36: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol. Health Med. 2019, 24, 978–991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.; Wei, W.; Wang, C.M. Effects of psychological interventions for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lupus 2012, 21, 1077–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lisnevskaia, L.; Murphy, G.; Isenberg, D. Systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 2014, 384, 1878–1888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alvarez-Nemegyei, J.; Cobarrubias-Cobos, A.; Escalante-Triay, F.; Sosa-Munoz, J.; Miranda, J.M.; Jara, L.J. Bromocriptine in systemic lupus erythematosus: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Lupus 1998, 7, 414–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMurray, R.W.; Weidensaul, D.; Allen, S.H.; Walker, S.E. Efficacy of bromocriptine in an open label therapeutic trial for systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 1995, 22, 2084–2091. [Google Scholar]
- Mok, C.C.; Lau, C.S.; Lee, K.W.; Wong, R.W. Hyperprolactinemia in males with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 1998, 25, 2357–2363. [Google Scholar]
- Buskila, D.; Lorber, M.; Neumann, L.; Flusser, D.; Shoenfeld, Y. No correlation between prolactin levels and clinical activity in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 1996, 23, 629–632. [Google Scholar]
- Jara, L.J.; Gomez-Sanchez, C.; Silveira, L.H.; Martinez-Osuna, P.; Vasey, F.B.; Espinoza, L.R. Hyperprolactinemia in systemic lupus erythematosus: Association with disease activity. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1992, 303, 222–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karimifar, M.; Tahmasebi, A.; Bonakdar, Z.S.; Purajam, S. Correlation of serum prolactin levels and disease activity in systematic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol. Int. 2013, 33, 511–516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Asyraf, W.W.; Shahrir, M.M.; Asrul, W.; Norasyikin, A.; Hanita, O.; Kong, W.; Azmi, M. The association between serum prolactin levels and interleukin-6 and systemic lupus erythematosus activity. Reumatismo 2018, 70, 241–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Orbach, H.; Zandman-Goddard, G.; Boaz, M.; Agmon-Levin, N.; Amital, H.; Szekanecz, Z.; Szucs, G.; Rovensky, J.; Kiss, E.; Doria, A.; et al. Prolactin and autoimmunity: Hyperprolactinemia correlates with serositis and anemia in SLE patients. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 2012, 42, 189–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, P.; Lv, T.T.; Guan, S.Y.; Li, H.M.; Leng, R.X.; Zou, Y.F.; Pan, H.F. Increased plasma/serum levels of prolactin in systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Postgrad. Med. 2017, 129, 126–132. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Song, G.G.; Lee, Y.H. Circulating prolactin level in systemic lupus erythematosus and its correlation with disease activity: A meta-analysis. Lupus 2017, 26, 1260–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.H.; Bae, S.C.; Song, G.G. Meta-analysis of associations between functional prolactin-1149 G/T polymorphism and susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Rheumatol. 2015, 34, 683–690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jara, L.J.; Medina, G.; Saavedra, M.A.; Vera-Lastra, O.; Torres-Aguilar, H.; Navarro, C.; del Mercado, M.V.; Espinoza, L.R. Prolactin has a pathogenic role in systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunol. Res. 2017, 65, 512–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.; Ramot, Y.; Hanning, A.; Poeggeler, B.; Bíró, T.; Gaspar, E.; Funk, W.; Griffiths, C.; Paus, R. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and oestrogen differentially regulate prolactin and prolactin receptor expression in female human skin and hair follicles in vitro. Br. J. Dermatol. 2010, 162, 1127–1131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.A.; Vidali, S.; Pigat, N.; Funk, W.; Lisztes, E.; Bíró, T.; Goffin, V.; Griffiths, C.E.M.; Paus, R. Tumour necrosis factor alpha, interferon gamma and substance P are novel modulators of extrapituitary prolactin expression in human skin. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e60819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gutiérrez, M.; Molina, J.; Jara, L.; Cuéllar, M.; García, C.; Gutiérrez-Ureña, S.; Gharavi, A.; Espinoza, L. Prolactin and systemic lupus erythematosus: Prolactin secretion by SLE lymphocytes and proliferative (autocrine) activity. Lupus 1995, 4, 348–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Featherstone, K.; White, M.R.; Davis, J.R. The prolactin gene: A paradigm of tissue-specific gene regulation with complex temporal transcription dynamics. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2012, 24, 977–990. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Langan, E.A.; Ramot, Y.; Goffin, V.; Griffiths, C.E.; Foitzik, K.; Paus, R. Mind the (gender) gap: Does prolactin exert gender and/or site-specific effects on the human hair follicle? J. Investig. Dermatol. 2010, 130, 886–891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langan, E.A. Prolactin and human skin-the effects of sex and site on expression and function. Endocrine 2018, 59, 700–701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goffin, V.; Touraine, P.; Culler, M.D.; Kelly, P.A. Drug Insight: Prolactin-receptor antagonists, a novel approach to treatment of unresolved systemic and local hyperprolactinemia? Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab. 2006, 2, 571–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Freeman, M.E.; Kanyicska, B.; Lerant, A.; Nagy, G. Prolactin: Structure, function, and regulation of secretion. Physiol. Rev. 2000, 80, 1523–1631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rousset, L.; Halioua, B. Stress and psoriasis. Int. J. Dermatol. 2018, 57, 1165–1172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martins, A.M.; Ascenso, A.; Ribeiro, H.M.; Marto, J. The Brain-Skin Connection and the Pathogenesis of Psoriasis: A Review with a Focus on the Serotonergic System. Cells 2020, 9, 796. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yang, H.; Zheng, J. Influence of stress on the development of psoriasis. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2020, 45, 284–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Snast, I.; Reiter, O.; Atzmony, L.; Leshem, Y.; Hodak, E.; Mimouni, D.; Pavlovsky, L. Psychological stress and psoriasis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Dermatol. 2018, 178, 1044–1055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tampa, M.; Sarbu, M.I.; Mitran, M.I.; Mitran, C.I.; Matei, C.; Georgescu, S.R. The Pathophysiological Mechanisms and the Quest for Biomarkers in Psoriasis, a Stress-Related Skin Disease. Dis. Markers 2018, 2018, 5823684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Potestio, L.; Lauletta, G.; Tommasino, N.; Portarapillo, A.; Salsano, A.; Battista, T.; Martora, F.; Megna, M. Risk Factors for Psoriasis Flares: A Narrative Review. Psoriasis 2024, 14, 39–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Verhoeven, E.W.; Kraaimaat, F.W.; de Jong, E.M.; Schalkwijk, J.; van de Kerkhof, P.C.; Evers, A.W. Individual differences in the effect of daily stressors on psoriasis: A prospective study. Br. J. Dermatol. 2009, 161, 295–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sijercic, I.; Ennis, N.; Monson, C.M. A systematic review of cognitive and behavioral treatments for individuals with psoriasis. J. Dermatol. Treat. 2020, 31, 631–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maqbool, S.; Ihtesham, A.; Langove, M.N.; Jamal, S.; Jamal, T.; Safian, H.A. Neuro-dermatological association between psoriasis and depression: An immune-mediated inflammatory process validating skin-brain axis theory. AIMS Neurosci. 2021, 8, 340–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Koo, J.; Marangell, L.; Nakamura, M.; Armstrong, A.; Jeon, C.; Bhutani, T.; Wu, J. Depression and suicidality in psoriasis: Review of the literature including the cytokine theory of depression. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2017, 31, 1999–2009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tohid, H.; Aleem, D.; Jackson, C. Major Depression and Psoriasis: A Psychodermatological Phenomenon. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 2016, 29, 220–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kaczmarski, R.S.; Mufti, G.J. The cytokine receptor superfamily. Blood Rev. 1991, 5, 193–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Noushad, S.; Ahmed, S.; Ansari, B.; Mustafa, U.H.; Saleem, Y.; Hazrat, H. Physiological biomarkers of chronic stress: A systematic review. Int. J. Health Sci. 2021, 15, 46–59. [Google Scholar]
- Weber, G.; Heitz, P.U.; Pliess, G. Hyperplasia of growth hormone-producing cells in the hypophysis in psoriasis. Study of 10 patients. Hautarzt 1986, 37, 458–462. [Google Scholar]
- Giasuddin, A.S.; El-Sherif, A.I.; El-Ojali, S.I. Prolactin: Does it have a role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis? Dermatology 1998, 197, 119–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gorpelioglu, C.; Gungor, E.; Alli, N. Is prolactin involved in etiopathogenesis of psoriasis? J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2008, 22, 1135–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dilme-Carreras, E.; Martin-Ezquerra, G.; Sanchez-Regana, M.; Umbert-Millet, P. Serum prolactin levels in psoriasis and correlation with cutaneous disease activity. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2011, 36, 29–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khatri, G.; Mahajan, V.K.; Mehta, K.S.; Sharma, K.K.; Bhushan, S.; Chauhan, P.S. Serum prolactin levels in patients with psoriasis: Results of a pilot study. Indian J. Med. Res. 2017, 145, 250–252. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Sanchez Regana, M.; Umbert Millet, P. Psoriasis in association with prolactinoma: Three cases. Br. J. Dermatol. 2000, 143, 864–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Robati, R.M.; Toossi, P.; Rahmati-Roodsari, M.; Khalilazar, S.; Abolhasani, E.; Namazi, N.; Younespour, S. Association of psoriasis severity with serum prolactin, thyroid hormones, and cortisol before and after treatment. Sci. World J. 2013, 2013, 921819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Botezatu, D.; Tovaru, M.; Georgescu, S.R.; Curici, A.; Giurcaneanu, C. Treatment Effects upon Prolactin and Soluble Receptor of Interleukin-2 in Psoriatic Patients. Maedica 2018, 13, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rathika, S.; Rajappa, M.; Chandrashekar, L.; Munisamy, M.; Thappa, D.M. Effect of treatment on prolactin levels in patients with psoriasis vulgaris. Clin. Chim. Acta 2014, 429, 212–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Keen, M.A.; Hassan, I. Serum prolactin levels in psoriasis and its association with disease activity: A case-control study. Indian J. Dermatol. 2014, 59, 562–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Angioni, A.R.; Lania, A.; Cattaneo, A.; Beck-Peccoz, P.; Spada, A. Effects of chronic retinoid administration on pituitary function. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 2005, 28, 961–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Girolomoni, G.; Phillips, J.T.; Bergstresser, P.R. Prolactin stimulates proliferation of cultured human keratinocytes. J. Investig. Dermatol. 1993, 101, 275–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, X.; Friedl, A. A positive feedback loop between prolactin and STAT5 promotes angiogenesis. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2015, 846, 265–280. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Kanda, N.; Watanabe, S. Prolactin enhances interferon-gamma-induced production of CXC ligand 9 (CXCL9), CXCL10, and CXCL11 in human keratinocytes. Endocrinology 2007, 148, 2317–2325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hau, C.S.; Kanda, N.; Tada, Y.; Shibata, S.; Sato, S.; Watanabe, S. Prolactin induces the production of Th17 and Th1 cytokines/chemokines in murine Imiquimod-induced psoriasiform skin. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2014, 28, 1370–1379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bernatchez, S.F.; Eysaman-Walker, J.; Weir, D. Venous Leg Ulcers: A Review of Published Assessment and Treatment Algorithms. Adv. Wound Care 2022, 11, 28–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zamora, M.; Robles, J.P.; Aguilar, M.B.; Romero-Gómez, S.D.J.; Bertsch, T.; Martinez de la Escalera, G.; Triebel, J.; Clapp, C. Thrombin Cleaves Prolactin into a Potent 5.6-kDa Vasoinhibin: Implication for Tissue Repair. Endocrinology 2021, 162, bqab177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Piwnica, D.; Touraine, P.; Struman, I.; Tabruyn, S.; Bolbach, G.; Clapp, C.; Martial, J.A.; Kelly, P.A.; Goffin, V. Cathepsin D processes human prolactin into multiple 16K-like N-terminal fragments: Study of their antiangiogenic properties and physiological relevance. Mol. Endocrinol. 2004, 18, 2522–2542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Friedrich, C.; Neugebauer, L.; Zamora, M.; Robles, J.P.; de la Escalera, G.M.; Clapp, C.; Bertsch, T.; Triebel, J. Plasmin generates vasoinhibin-like peptides by cleaving prolactin and placental lactogen. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2021, 538, 111471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, H.; Li, X.; Lu, J.; Jones, P.; Xu, W. Prolactin may serve as a regulator to promote vocal fold wound healing. Biosci. Rep. 2020, 40, BSR20200467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mestak, O.; Mestak, J.; Borsky, J. Hyperprolactinaemia: A cause of severe postoperative complication after reduction mammaplasty. J. Plast. Surg. Hand Surg. 2014, 48, 421–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karimi, H.; Nourizad, S.; Momeni, M.; Rahbar, H.; Momeni, M.; Farhadi, K. Burns, hypertrophic scar and galactorrhea. J. Inj. Violence Res. 2013, 5, 117–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niemann, N.; Billnitzer, A.; Jankovic, J. Parkinson’s disease and skin. Park. Relat. Disord. 2021, 82, 61–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yosipovitch, G.; Tang, M.; Dawn, A.; Chen, M.; Goh, C.; Huak, Y.; Seng, L. Study of psychological stress, sebum production and acne vulgaris in adolescents. Acta Derm. Venereol. 2007, 87, 135–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chiu, A.; Chon, S.Y.; Kimball, A.B. The response of skin disease to stress: Changes in the severity of acne vulgaris as affected by examination stress. Arch. Dermatol. 2003, 139, 897–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dreno, B. What is new in the pathophysiology of acne, an overview. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 2017, 31 (Suppl. S5), 8–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mah, P.M.; Webster, J. Hyperprolactinemia: Etiology, diagnosis, and management. Semin. Reprod. Med. 2002, 20, 365–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darley, C.R.; Kirby, J.D.; Besser, G.M.; Munro, D.D.; Edwards, C.R.; Rees, L.H. Circulating testosterone, sex hormone binding globulin and prolactin in women with late onset or persistent acne vulgaris. Br. J. Dermatol. 1982, 106, 517–522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dashko, M.O.; Syzon, O.O.; Chaplyk-Chyzho, I.O.; Turkevych, S.A. Pathogenetic peculiarities of neuroendocrine and metabolic disorders in patients with acne associated with chronic stress. Wiadomości Lek. 2019, 72, 997–1001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hagag, P.; Hertzianu, I.; Ben-Shlomo, A.; Weiss, M. Androgen suppression and clinical improvement with dopamine agonists in hyperandrogenic-hyperprolactinemic women. J. Reprod. Med. 2001, 46, 678–684. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, T.; Wei, Z.; Ju, Q.; Chen, W. Sex hormones and acne: State of the art. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 2021, 19, 509–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ju, Q.; Tao, T.; Hu, T.; Karadag, A.S.; Al-Khuzaei, S.; Chen, W. Sex hormones and acne. Clin. Dermatol. 2017, 35, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clayton, R.W.; Langan, E.A.; Ansell, D.M.; de Vos, I.J.H.M.; Göbel, K.; Schneider, M.R.; Picardo, M.; Lim, X.; van Steensel, M.A.M.; Paus, R. Neuroendocrinology and neurobiology of sebaceous glands. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2020, 95, 592–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Karadag, A.S.; Ertugrul, D.T.; Tutal, E.; Akin, K.O. Isotretinoin influences pituitary hormone levels in acne patients. Acta Derm. Venereol. 2011, 91, 31–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Karadag, A.S.; Takci, Z.; Ertugrul, D.T.; Bilgili, S.G.; Balahoroglu, R.; Takir, M. The effect of different doses of isotretinoin on pituitary hormones. Dermatology 2015, 230, 354–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peserico, A.; Ruzza, G.; Veller Fornasa, C.; Bertoli, P.; Cipriani, R. Bromocriptine treatment in patients with late onset acne and idiopathic hyperprolactinemia. Acta Derm. Venereol. 1988, 68, 83–84. [Google Scholar]
- Shaw, J.C. Acne: Effect of hormones on pathogenesis and management. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2002, 3, 571–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Skin Disease | Sex | Findings | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Acne | F | Elevated PRL concentrations in 3.3% of cases of adult female acne No association with acne severity | [23] |
M/F | Elevated PRL concentrations in patients with acne (males and females) compared to age- and BMI-matched controls | [24] | |
F | No elevated PRL concentrations in females with late-onset or persistent acne | [25] | |
F | Low-dose isotretinoin significantly reduced serum PRL concentrations | [26] | |
Alopecia | F | Case report of frontotemporal hair loss in association with hyperprolactinaemia in a patient with autoimmune thyroid disease | [27] |
Alopecia areata (AA) | M/F | No difference in serum PRL concentrations between patients and healthy controls, but increased PRL receptor expression in scalp biopsies of patients with AA, which correlated with disease severity | [28] |
Atopic Dermatitis (AD) | M/F | No increased PRL serum concentrations in patients with AD compared to controls and no correlation with disease severity | [29] |
Frontal fibrosing alopecia | F | No difference in serum PRL concentrations between patients and age- and menopause status-matched controls | [30] |
Female pattern hair loss | F | Measure of serum PRL optional but recommended based on the report from the multidisciplinary androgen excess and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) committee | [31] |
F | Hyperprolactinaemia identified in 7.2% of patients | [32] | |
F | Moderate elevated serum PRL concentration unlikely to play a causative role in female hair loss | [33] | |
Lichen Planus (LP) | M/F | No difference between PRL serum concentrations in patients with oral LP and aged- and sex matched controls | [34] |
Pemphigus | M/F | Elevated PRL concentrations in 20% of patients newly diagnosed with pemphigus vulgaris Correlation with severity (Pemphigus Disease and Severity Index) | [35] |
F | Elevated PRL concentrations in 22% of patients newly diagnosed with pemphigus vulgaris No correlation with clinical or serological disease activity | [36] | |
M/F | Elevated PRL concentrations in patients newly diagnosed with pemphigus vulgaris compared to age- and sex-matched controls Significant association between severity of pemphigus and serum PRL concentrations | [37] | |
M/F | No correlation between serum PRL concentration and anti-desmoglein 1 or 3 levels. | [38] | |
Psoriasis | M/F | PRL Receptor immunoreactivity in lesional- and perilesional skin in the sweat glands and hair follicle outer root sheath | [39] |
M | Prolactin level is significantly elevated in lesional skin of patients with psoriasis | [40] | |
M/F | Meta-analysis confirms increased serum PRL concentrations in patients with psoriasis, which may correlate with disease severity | [41] | |
M/F | Elevated serum PRL concentrations in males and females and lesional PRL concentrations correlated with disease severity | [21] | |
M/F | Elevated serum PRL concentrations in patients with psoriatic arthritis when compared to patients with psoriasis and healthy controls | [42] | |
M/F | No difference in serum PRL concentrations between patients with psoriasis, AD, and healthy controls | [20] | |
Melanoma | M | Case report of hyperprolactinaemia in metastatic melanoma, possibly via ectopic production, normalised during immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy with pembrolizumab | [43] |
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) | M/F | Meta-analysis revealing significantly higher PRL concentrations in SSc patients than healthy controls; sex- and detection method-dependent | [44] |
Urticaria | F | 20% of the patients with chronic urticaria had elevated serum PRL concentrations and 50% had a clinical remission with bromocriptine treatment | [45,46] |
Wound healing | F | PRL significantly inhibited epidermal regeneration (reepithelialisation), cytokeratin 6 protein expression, and intraepidermal mitochondrial activity (MTCO1 expression), while it promoted keratinocyte terminal differentiation (i.e., involucrin expression) ex vivo. | [47] |
Factors Influencing Serum PRL Concentrations [59,60,61] | Examples |
---|---|
Physiological factors | Sex |
Age | |
Diurnal variation | |
Psychological stress | |
Pregnancy, lactation | |
Nipple Stimulation | |
Menopausal status | |
Exercise | |
Pathological factors | Tumours—for example, prolactinoma |
Hypothalamic diseases, e.g., Sarcoidosis | |
Pituitary stalk disorders, e.g., Tuberculosis, Langerhans cell Histiocytosis | |
Trauma, including brain or chest wall injury | |
Genetic—PRL receptor (PRLR) mutation | |
Hypothyroidism | |
Chronic renal failure | |
Ectopic production | |
Medication | Antidepressants |
Antiemetics | |
Antipsychotics | |
Antihypertensives | |
Opioids | |
Oral contraceptives | |
Idiopathic | No underlying cause found |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Langan, E.A. Prolactin: A Mammalian Stress Hormone and Its Role in Cutaneous Pathophysiology. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 7100. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137100
Langan EA. Prolactin: A Mammalian Stress Hormone and Its Role in Cutaneous Pathophysiology. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(13):7100. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137100
Chicago/Turabian StyleLangan, Ewan A. 2024. "Prolactin: A Mammalian Stress Hormone and Its Role in Cutaneous Pathophysiology" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 13: 7100. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25137100