Engineering of g-C3N4 for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Principles of Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production
3. Structure and Properties of g-C3N4
4. Preparation of g-C3N4
5. Modification Strategies over g-C3N4
5.1. Element Doping
5.1.1. Metal Doping
5.1.2. Non-Metal Doping
5.2. Morphology Control
5.2.1. Nanostructure Regulation
5.2.2. Pore Structure Control
5.3. Construction of g-C3N4 Heterostructure
6. Conclusions and Prospectives
- Elemental doping alters the energy band structure and surface properties of g-C3N4 through orbital hybridization, enlarges the light-absorbing capacity of g-C3N4, and facilitates the effective separation of photogenerated carriers, thus conferring excellent photocatalytic performance of g-C3N4. Whether it be metal, non-metal, or co-doping methods, all have achieved significant performance enhancements. However, it should be highlighted that the benchmarks for gauging these improvements are not standardized across studies. For instance, some research has reported a 10,000-fold surge in hydrogen production rates post-doping, while other studies have focused on achieving higher overall hydrogen production yields or enhanced apparent quantum efficiencies. Despite these advancements, the quest for a material design that embodies the ultimate combination of qualities remains ongoing.
- The morphology regulation control (e.g., nanotubes, nanorods, nanosheets, or porous structure) can significantly increase the surface area, and reaction active sites and enhance the photocatalytic activity. While the aforementioned nanostructures have demonstrated the potential to markedly improve performance, their effectiveness is still primarily benchmarked against bulk g-C3N4. The current state of research exhibits a deficiency in systematic comparative analyses that span the spectrum from 0D to 3D nanostructures within the same material system. Additionally, there is a notable absence of discourse on the specific application contexts where these nanostructures would be most advantageous. This gap in the existing research limits the comprehensive understanding of how nanostructures can be tailored to meet the demands of various photocatalytic applications.
- By constructing suitable heterojunctions to allow photogenerated charge carriers to exist at the interface of another conductor, semiconductor, or catalyst, inhibiting their recombination inside or on the surface of g-C3N4 and reducing energy loss, the efficiency of photogenerated electron–hole separation can be effectively improved, thus enhancing the efficiency of photocatalytic hydrogen production. However, the introduction of a second material can sometimes compromise the overall performance stability of the photocatalyst, leading to degradation under prolonged use. Concurrently, the additional steps required to create heterostructures can increase the cost of production, and there must be a balance between the cost and the efficiency gains achieved.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Doping Type | Doping Element | Co-Catalyst | Morphology | Light Source | R (H2) (μmol·g−1·h−1) | R (H2) of g-C3N4 (μmol·g−1·h−1) | Apparent Quantum Efficiency (AQE%) | Application | Ref. (Year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Transition Metal | Ni | 0.5wt%Pt | Ni nanoparticles | 500 W Hg lamp | 1990 | 738 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2023 [53] |
Ni | 3wt%Pt | Nanosheets 10 nm | 300 W Xe lamp, >400 nm | 155.71 | 98.67 | N/A | H2 evolution, Mo degradation | 2019 [54] | |
Co | MoS2 | 2D-irregular wrinkled sheet | 300 W Xe lamp | 3193 | 76 | 16.62 (370 nm) | H2 evolution | 2021 [55] | |
Cu | N/A | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp | 266 | 14 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2023 [56] | |
Cu | N/A | Nanosheets | light-emitting diode, 427 nm | 3774.35 | 1116.07 | 1.34 (427 nm) | H2 evolution | 2021 [57] | |
Alkali Metal | Na | 3wt%Pt | Nanowires 100–150 nm | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1740 | 49.7 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2020 [58] |
K | 3wt%Pt | Nanosheets 1–2 nm | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1292.525 | 71.295 | N/A | H2 evolution, Rhodamine B degradation | 2024 [59] | |
Non-Metal | C | N/A | C-doped Nanowires, nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 836 | 102 | N/A | H2 evolution, Pollutants degradation | 2021 [60] |
C | 1.2wt%Pt | Porous sheet structure | 300 W Xe lamp | 13,169.0 | 880.82 | 2.91 (430 nm) | H2 evolution | 2022 [61] | |
N | 3wt%Pt | Nanosheets 2.5 nm | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1686.4 | 259.16 | 6.2 (420 nm) | H2 evolution | 2020 [62] | |
N | Ni | Bamboo-like carbon nanotubes | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1050.4 | 21.4 | 8.12 (420 nm) | H2 evolution, 4-nitro-phenol degradation | 2023 [63] | |
P | 2wt%Pt | Hollow ball structure | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 9653 | N/A | N/A | H2 evolution | 2021 [64] | |
P | Ni (II) | 2D-stacked nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1213 | 117 | 9.7 (420 nm) | H2 evolution | 2021 [65] | |
S | CoS2 | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 577.5 | N/A | 1.08 (420 nm) | H2 evolution | 2020 [66] | |
S | 3wt%Pt | Porous layered structure | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1404 | 60 | 3.3 (420 nm) | H2 evolution | 2020 [67] | |
B | 3wt%Pt | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1639.29 | 901.35 | N/A | H2 evolution, NO removal | 2022 [68] | |
O | 1wt%Pt | Crystalline/ amorphous mosaic nanohomo junction | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 4073.2 | 47.3 | 26.9 (420 nm) | H2 evolution | 2021 [69] | |
Metal/Metal | Co/La | N/A | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp | 1000 | 400 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2021 [70] |
Metal/ Non-Metal | Fe-C | N/A | 2D-structure | 300 W Xe lamp | 2412.38 | 407.56 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2024 [71] |
Na-O | N/A | Nanorods | 300 W Xe lamp, >400 nm | 7460 | 88.8 | N/A | H2 evolution | 2021 [72] | |
Mo-S | N/A | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 294 | N/A | N/A | H2 evolution | 2021 [73] | |
Bi-S | N/A | Porous 2D-nanosheets structure | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 1139 | 455.6 | N/A | H2 evolution, Tetracycline degradation | 2022 [74] | |
Non-Metal/ Non-Metal | S/P | N/A | Nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 103.88 | 52.14 | N/A | H2 evolution, Rhodamine B degradation | 2024 [75] |
S/C | N/A | Hierarchical microtubules filled with nanosheets | 300 W Xe lamp, >420 nm | 4868 | N/A | N/A | H2 evolution | 2024 [76] |
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Yan, Y.; Meng, Q.; Tian, L.; Cai, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, Y. Engineering of g-C3N4 for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 8842. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168842
Yan Y, Meng Q, Tian L, Cai Y, Zhang Y, Chen Y. Engineering of g-C3N4 for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: A Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(16):8842. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168842
Chicago/Turabian StyleYan, Yachao, Qing Meng, Long Tian, Yulong Cai, Yujuan Zhang, and Yingzhi Chen. 2024. "Engineering of g-C3N4 for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: A Review" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 16: 8842. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168842