Brassicaceae Mustards: Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action against Human Disease
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Phytochemical Constituents of Mustards
2.1. Oil and Fatty Acids
2.2. Glucosinolates
Glucosinolate | In the Parent Structure of GSL Above, R = | Breakdown Product(s) | Structure of Breakdown Product(s) |
---|---|---|---|
Aliphatic GSL (Alkenyls derived from methionine) | |||
Glucocapparin | CH3- | Methyl ITC. | CH3—N=C=S (Methyl ITC), |
Sinigrin (Allyl-GSL or 2-propenyl-GSL or potassium myronate, modern name sinigroside, C10H16KNO9S2) | CH2=CH-CH2— | Allyl ITC (2-Propenyl-ITC), allyl cyanide, 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane, allyl thiocyanate and allyl nitrile. After further breakdown, allyl-ITC may produce highly toxic nitriles. | CH2=CH-CH2—N=C=S (Allyl ITC), KHSO4 (Potassium bisulphate), CH2=CH-CH2-C≡N (allyl cyanide), CH2=CH-CH2—S—C≡N (allyl thiocyanate), CH2=CH-CH2—C≡N (allyl nitrile), 1-cyano-2,3-epithio propane |
Gluconapin (But-3-enyl GSL, C11H19NO9S2) | CH2=CH(CH2)2- (but-3-enyl or 3-butenyl) | Butyl ITC or 3-butenyl-ITC. | CH2=CH(CH2)2—N=C=S (Butyl ITC or 3-butenyl-ITC) |
Glucobrassicanapin (pent-4-enyl GSL, C12H21NO9S2) | CH2=CH(CH2)3- (pent-4-enyl) | Pent-4-enyl ITC or 4-pentenyl ITC. | CH2=CH(CH2)3—N=C=S (Pent-4-enyl ITC or 4-pentenyl ITC) |
Glucoiberverin, (3-methyl thio propyl GSL, C11H21NO9S3) | CH3-S-(CH2)3- [or CH3-S-CH2-CH2-CH2-] | Iberverin [(3-(methyl thio) propyl ITC, (C5H9NS2)] and iberverin nitrile [4-(methylthio) butane nitrile]. | CH3-S-CH2-CH2-CH2—N=C=S (Iberverin) |
Glucoerucin, (4-methyl thio butyl GSL, C12H23NO9S3) | CH3-S-(CH2)4- [or CH3-S-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-] | Erucin [4-(methyl thio) butyl ITC or [isothio cyanato-4-(methyl thio)-butane] | CH3-S-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2—N=C=S (Erucin) |
Glucoberteroin (5-Methyl-thio-pentyl-GSL, C13H25NO9S3) | CH3-S-(CH2)5- | 5-Methyl-thio-pentyl-ITC. | CH3-S-(CH2)5—N=C=S (5-Methyl-thio-pentyl-ITC) |
Glucoiberin (3-(methylsulfinyl) propyl GSL, C11H21NO10S3) | CH3-SO-(CH2)3— | Iberin (3-Methyl sulfinyl propyl ITC) or (1-isothiocyanato-3-(methylsulfinyl)-propane) which is the Structural analog of 4-(methyl sulfinyl) butyl isothiocyanate (sulforaphane). | CH3-SO-(CH2)3—N=C=S (Iberin) |
Glucocheirolin (3-methyl-sulfonyl-propyl-GSL, C11H21NO11S3) | CH3-SO2-(CH2)3- | Cheirolin [3-(methyl sulfonyl) propyl ITC] or 1-ITC-3- (methyl sulphonyl) propane. | CH3-SO2-(CH2)3—N=C=S (Cheirolin) |
Glucoraphanin (4-methyl sulfinyl butyl GSL, C12H23NO10S3) | CH3-SO-(CH2)4- | Sulforaphane [1-isothiocyanato-(4R)-(methyl sulfinyl) butane] or 4-methyl-sulfinyl-butyl-ITC. | CH3-SO-(CH2)4—N=C=S (Sulforaphane) |
Glucoalyssin (5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl-GSL, C13H25NO10S3) | CH3-SO-(CH2)5- | 5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl ITC. | CH3-SO-(CH2)5—N=C=S (5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl ITC) |
Progoitrin (2-hydroxy 3-butenyl-GSL, C11H19NO10S2) | CH2=CH-CH(OH)-CH2- | Goitrin [(2R)-2-hydroxy-3-butenyl-ITC or 5-ethenyl-1,3-oxazolidine-2-thione (C5H7NOS)], a cyclic thio-carbamate, unstable ITC and 3-hydroxy-4,5-epithio pentane nitrile. | CH2=CH-CH(OH)-CH2—N=C=S |
Epiprogoitrin (2(S)-hydroxy-3-butenyl GSL, C11H19NO10S2) | CH2=CH-CHOH-CH2- | Epiprogoitrin does not break down to stable ITC, a further hydrolysis produces epigoitrin [(R)-5-vinyloxazolidine-2-thione] and finally goitrin. | CH2=CH-CH(OH)-CH2—N=C=S |
Glucoalyssin (5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl-GSL, C13H25NO10S3) | CH3-SO-(CH2)5- | 5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl ITC. | CH3-SO-(CH2)5—N=C=S (5-methyl-sulfinyl-pentyl ITC) |
Glucolepidiin (Ethyl GSL, C9H17NO9S2) | CH3-CH2- | Ethyl isothiocyanate. | CH3-CH2—N=C=S (Ethyl isothiocyanate). |
1-cyano-2-hydroxy-3-butene (or 2-hydoxybut-3-enyl cyanide, CH2=CH-CHOH-C≡N)- a Nitrile (R-C≡N) | - | 3-butenonitrile (2-methyl-3-butenenitrile), 4-methylthiobutanonitrile (4-methylsulfanylbutanenitrile oxide). | CH2=CH-CH2-C≡N (3-butenonitrile) CH3-S-CH2-CH2-C≡N=O (methylthiobutanonitrile) |
Indolyl GSLs (Indolyl derivatives from tryptophan) | |||
Glucobrassicin (3-indolyl methyl GSL, C16H20N2O9S2) | (3-indolyl methyl-) | Myrosinase breaks down glucobrassicin to 3-indoly-methyl-ITC (unstable) and simultaneously releases thiocynate anion (SCN-) to yield indole-3-carbinol (3-hydroxymethyl- indole). Indole-3-carbinole can combine with ascorbic acid to form Ascorbigen. | indole-3-carbinol |
Napoleiferin (gluconapoleiferin) (2-hydroxy-4-pent enyl GSL, C6H9NOS); it is a natural homolog of goitrin. | R=CH2CH(OH)CH2CH=CH2- (2-hydroxy-4-pent enyl-) | Oxazolidine-2-thione. | Oxazolidine-2-thione |
Neoglucobrassicin (1-Methoxy-3-indolyl methyl GSL, C17H22N2O10S2) | Hydrolysis yields unsTable 1-methoxy-3-indolyl methyl ITC and thiocyanate ion (SCN−). | ||
Aromatic GSL (Arylalkyls derivatives from phenylalanine) | |||
Sinalbin (C30H42N2O15S2) (p-hydroxy benzyl GSL, sinapine glucosinalbate) or 4/p-hydroxybenzyl GSL or glucosinalbin), the choline ester of sinapic acid | p-OH-C6H4-CH2- | Allyl isothiocyanate, and on hydrolysis by myrosinase, produces unstable para hydroxy benzyl ITC. Para hydroxy benzyl ITC can further decomposes to para hydroxyl benzyl alcohol and thiocyanate ion (SCN−) and/or corresponding hydroxyl derivatives like di-(para hydroxyl benzyl disulphide). It also produces p-hydroxy benzyl amine known as the ‘white principles’. | CH2=CH-CH2—N=C=S (Allyl ITC), p-OH-C6H4-CH2—N=C=S (para hydroxy benzyl ITC), p-OH-C6H4-CH2—OH (para hydroxyl benzyl alcohol), HO—C6H4-CH2—NH2 [p-hydroxy benzyl amine (4-Hydroxybenzylamine)] |
Gluconasturtiin (2-phenyl ethyl-GSL, C15H21NO9S2) | R=C6H5-CH2-CH2- | Phenethyl ITC (2-penyl-ethyl ITC). | C6H5-CH2-CH2-N=C=S (Phenethyl ITC) |
Glucotropaeolin, Benzylglucosinolate (C14H19NO9S2) | R=C6H5-CH2- | Benzyl ITC, benzyl cyanide and benzyl thiocyanate. | C6H5-CH2-N=C=S (Benzyl ITC) |
Glucosinolates (GSL) | Mustards | Biological Activity of GSLs and Their Metabolites (Referred from Table 4) | References |
---|---|---|---|
Glucosinolates (secondary metabolites) | |||
Sinigrin, allyl glucosinolate (C10H16KNO9S2) | Brassica nigra (1% sinigrin), Sinapis alba, B. rapa var. campestris, B. carinata, B. juncea, Calepina irregularis, Alliaria petiolata, B. rapa, B. napus | Anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-fungal, antioxidant, and wound healing activity. Allyl-isothiocyanate is responsible for internal and external irritation and local vasodilation. It has been shown to prevent urinary bladder cancer and anti-proliferative activity against human prostate cancer cells. 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane has in vitro anti-cancer activity against human hepatocellular carcinoma. | [22,31,118,137,146,147,151,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164] |
Gluconapin, 3-Butenylglucosinolate, Butyl isothiocyanate (C11H19NO9S2) | B. rapa var. campestris, B. juncea, B. napus, Sinapis alba | Tumour inhibiting activity. | [22,147,160,165,166,167,168,169] |
Glucocheirolin (C11H20NO11S3) | Calepina irregularis, Erysimum corinthium | Anti-proliferative activity on cancerous cells. Cheirolin improves cellular antioxidant defense and stress response mechanisms. | [31,34,146,155,170] |
Glucoraphanin, 4-methylsulphinyl-butyl glucosinolate (C12H23NO10S3) | B. rapa var. campestris, B. nigra | Used in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders as an antioxidant, gastric ulcers caused by Helicobacter pylori; against cancer like fibroblasts and malignant melanoma and employed to improve autism. Sulforaphane is a strong cancer chemopreventive agent both in vitro and in vivo and a potent monofunctional phase II enzyme inducer. | [22,24,30,38,155,171,172,173,174,175] |
Progoitrin, (R)-2-hydroxybut-3-enylglucosinolate (C11H19NO10S2) | Brassica napus, B. rapa var. campestris, B. juncea | Thyroperoxidase enzyme inhibition and interference with the uptake and use of iodine by the thyroid gland. Anti-cancer effects. | [22,147,151,160,165,166,176] |
Epiprogoitrin (C11H19NO10S2) | Brassica napus, B. olarecia | Nematicidal activity and insecticidal property as an effective fumigant. | [152,177,178] |
Glucobrassicanapin, 4-pentenyl glucosinolate (C12H21NO99S2) | B. rapa var. campestris, B. napus, B. rapa | Anti-cancer activity | [22,147,165] |
Napoleiferin (C6H9NOS) | Brassica rapa, B. oleracea, B. napus, B. rapa var. campestris, B. nigra, B. juncea, B. carinata. | Goiterogenic substance. | [167,179,180,181,182] |
Nitriles R-C≡N | |||
Erucin, 1-isothiocyanato-4-(methylthio)-butayl isothiocyanate (C6H11NS2) | Eruca sativa Mill. (rocket). | Erucin is a sulfone analog of sulforaphane. It is an enzymatic hydrolysis product of glucoerucin, responsible for the characteristic aroma of broccoli. Chemically, it is the reduced form of sulforaphane. It has antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-fungal, and anti-inflammatory activities. It has strong cancer chemopreventive activity. It induces apoptosis in cancer cells, exerts antiproliferative effects, and causes cell cycle arrest in cancer cells. | [183,184,185,186] |
Erucin nitrile (1-cyano-4-(methylthio)butane) may | Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli)-seeds, sprouts and root | Erucin nitrile could be formed in the anaerobic environment of the cecum or by hydrolysis of glucoerucin by reduction of sulforaphane nitrile. Erucin nitrile has potential activity as a phytoalexin, i.e., antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. | [183,186] |
Sulforaphane nitrile, 5-(methylsulfinyl) pentanenitrile (C6H11NOS) | Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli) sprouts, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) | Myrosinase cofactor epithiospecifier protein breaks down glucoraphanin to sulforaphane nitrile. Both sulforaphane and sulforaphane nitrile have chemoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-cancer effects, but sulforaphane nitrile is substantially less potent than sulforaphane. | [187,188] |
Epithionitrile | |||
Epithionitriles, major hydrolysis products | Brassica rapa, B. oleracea, B. napus, B. rapa var. campestris, B. nigra, B. juncea, B. carinata. | 3-butenonitrile has anti-cancer and antimicrobial activities. 4-methylthiobutanonitrile has a characteristic aroma. 1-cyano-2,3-epithiopropane, and 1-cyano-3,4-epithiobutane, 1-cyano-4,5-epithiopentane have cancer-preventative activities. | [189,190,191,192] |
Glucoalyssin (C13H25NO10S3) | B. rapa var. campestris, B. napus, Degenia velebitica | The flavor component of cooked Brassicas. It is an antioxidant. | [163,193] |
Gluconapoleiferin (C12H21NO10S2) | B. napus, B. rapa, B. rapa var. campestris, B. juncea, B. nigra | Tasteless, but hydrolytic, susceptibility to peptic digestion. A precursor to glucobrassicanapin biosynthesis. Thyroid gland function inhibitory effect. | [163,194] |
Glucolepidiin (C9H17NO9S2) | Calepina irregularis | Antibacterial activity. | [31,146] |
Thiocyanates R-S-C≡N | |||
Glucobrassicin, the unsubstituted indole glucosinolate. (C16H20N2O9S2) | B. juncea, B. napus | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. It stimulates the bodily natural detoxifying enzymes. | [151,160,163,166,167,195,196,197] |
Neoglucobrassicin (C17H22N2O10S2) | B. napus, S. officinale. | Antioxidant and anti-cancer activity. | [151,163,195] |
Glucoiberin (C11H21NO10S3) | B. napus, B. incana, B. oleracea, Calepina irregularis, Erysimum corinthium, Iberis amara, Moringa oleifera | Anti-cancer effects | [22,31,34,146,147,151,165] |
Glucoiberverin (C11H21NO9S3) | Calepina irregularis | Repellent and acts against insect herbivory | [31,146]. |
Glucoerucin (C12H23NO9S3) | Calepina irregularis | Inhibition of cancerous cell proliferation. | [31,146,155]. |
Sinalbin, P-Hydroxybenzyl Glucosinolate (C14H19NO10S2) | Sinapine is present in all the mustards in different amounts. Chiefly found in white mustard Sinapis alba (2.5% of seed weight) and also reported in B. rapa var. campestris, B. napus B. juncea and B. nigra | Antioxidant, anti-microbial, and anti-fungal activity. Sinapine and sinamic acid have antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer properties. | [22,28,58,147,157,165,198,199,200] |
Isothiocyanates R-N=C=S | |||
Glucotropaeolin or benzyl glucosinolate, precursor of benzyl isothiocyanate (C14H19NO9S2) [C6H5-CH2-GSL] | Alliaria petiolate, B. juncea; B. nigra, Calepina irregularis, Lepidium sativum (garden criss), Sinapis alba. | Benzyl isothiocyanate or Glucotropaeolin has potential cancer-preventive activities, anti-tumorigenic (lung and esophagus in humans) activity, and works as an antimetastatic agent. It is also used as a food preservative because of its antimicrobial activity. | [31,146,155,160,166,169,201,202,203] |
Gluconasturtiin or Phenethylglucosinolate, the precursor of phenethyl isothiocyanate (C15H21NO9S2) | B. napus, Nasturtium officinale (watercress) | Inhibits the development of tobacco-specific carcinogen-induced lung tumors. | [22,147,151,165,201,204] |
Sulforaphane, 1-isothiocyanato-4-(methyl- sulfinyl) butane (C6H11NOS2). Sulforaphane is derived from glucoraphanin. | B. oleracea var. italica (broccoli) sprouts, kale, B. oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) or B. oleracea var. gongylodes (kohlrabi) | Anticarcinogenic activity by induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in various human cancer cells; antioxidant, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-fungal, and antiviral activities. | [79,186,205,206,207] |
Indole-3-carbinol, derived from glucobrassicin. (C9H9NO) | B. oleracea var. italica (broccoli), B. oleracea var. acephala (kale), Brassica oleracea var. capitata (cabbage) | Anti-cancer, antioxidant, and antiatherogenic activities. |
2.3. Phenolics and Flavonoids
2.4. Proteins
2.5. Minor Chemical Compounds
3. Use of Mustard to Treat Ailments
3.1. Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activities
3.2. Antidiabetic Action
3.3. Hypolipidemic Effects
3.4. Cytotoxic and Anti-Cancer Activity
3.5. Broncho- and Vaso-Dilating Properties
3.6. Action on Cardiovascular System
3.7. Counter Irritation Action
3.8. Antiinflammatory and Analgesic Action
3.9. Antiarthritic Action
3.10. Diuretic Action
3.11. Anthelmintic Activity
3.12. Emetic Action
3.13. Laxative Action
3.14. Development of Body Muscle and Aphrodisiac Action
3.15. Treatment of Baldness
3.16. Effects on Blood Flow and Bodily Secretions
3.17. Reduction in Fat and Body Weight
3.18. Antidepressant Effects
3.19. Use in Adrenoleukodystrophy and Adrenomyeloneuropathy
4. Adverse Effects and Other Antinutritional Effects of Mustard
4.1. Cardiac Effects
4.2. Allergic Effects
4.3. Goitrogenic Effects
4.4. Hematological Effects
4.5. Neurological Effects
5. Possible Application in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
6. Summary and Outlook
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Scientific Name | Common Name | Habitat | References |
---|---|---|---|
Alliaria petiolata (M. Bieb.) Cavara and Grande, Syn: Alliaire officinalis | Garlic mustard, hedge garlic mustard, and jack-by-the-hedge mustard. | A biennial herb, native to various regions of Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, and Europe, and naturalized to the United States and Canada. | [5,6,7] |
Brassica rapa var. campestris L. | Field mustard, wild turnip mustard, bird rape, turnip rape, and winter mustard. | A winter annual or biennial plant native to central Asia and Europe. | [8,9,10,11] |
Brassica carinata A. Braun. | Ethiopian mustard and Abyssinian mustard. | Traditional African vegetable cultivated in Ethiopian highlands. | [7,12] |
Sinapis alba Boiss. (Hook f. & Th.), Syn: B. hirta Moench, B. alba Linn. | White mustard, yellow mustard, and rai mustard. | Best known mustard in Europe, grown in the Mediterranean region, India, and China. | [13,14] |
Brassica juncea (L.) Czerniak. Coss., Syn: B. integrifolia | Brown mustard, Asian mustard, Oriental Mustard, Chinese mustard, Indian mustard, leaf mustard, giant red, sarepta mustard, Asiatic mustard, mustard green, and wild Brazilian mustard. | An annual herb native to Eastern and Southern Asia. It is widely cultivated throughout India, central Africa, south Russia, and steppes of the northeast Caspian Sea. It is a natural hybrid of B. rapa and B. nigra. | [15,16,17,18,19] |
Brassica napus (var. napus or var. oleifera) | Rapeseed, oilseed rape, colza, rutabaga, swede, Swedish turnip, leaf rape winter oilseed rape, and summer rape. | Native to South-East Asia and Eurasia and is most commonly grown in northern temperate regions including northern Asia, Japan, Korea, Northern China, Scandinavia, and Russia. Dominant species in Europe. | [8,20,21,22,23] |
Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J. Koch. Syn.: Sinapis nigra, B. sinapioides | Black mustard, brown mustard, cadlock, Scurvy mustard, Senvil mustard, short-pod mustard, true mustard, and warlock. | An annual herb native to most parts of Europe, the Mediterranean region, and other parts of north Africa, and has been naturalized in Great Britain and North America. | [15,24,25,26,27] |
Brassica rapa L. | Oilseed rape, rape oilseed, kale rape, rapa, rappi, keblock, colza, bird rape, rape mustard, field mustard, or rapeseed. | The most cultivated oilseed in many countries like Australia, Canada, and Poland. | [28,29] |
Calepina irregularis (Asso) Thellung. | White ball mustard, smooth ball mustard. | Native to the countries in central Asia, the Mediterranean basin and naturalized in central Europe, North America, and Australia. | [30,31] |
Camelina sativa | Camelina, false flax, wild flax, gold-of-pleasure, linseed dodder, German sesame, and Siberian oilseed. | Central Asia and northern Europe | [32,33] |
Erysimum corinthium | Wormseed mustard and wallflower. | Native to temperate Eurasia (Southeastern Europe), North Africa and Macaronesia, and North America south to Costa Rica. | [34] |
Erysimum repandum L. | Spreading wallflower, bushy wallflower, and spreading treacle-mustard. | NF | |
Neslia paniculata (L.) Desv. Syn.: Myagrum paniculatum | Ball mustard, common ball mustard, yellow weed, neslia, neslie, or moutarde. | Native Eurosiberian southern-temperate species commonly naturalized in South Australia, Canada, Europe, and Asia, South America. | [35,36] |
Sisymbrium officinale L. Scop., Syn.: Erysimum officinale | Erysimum, English watercress, mustard, hedge mustard, St. Barbara’s Hedge Mustard, common hedge, singer’s plant, and thalictroc. | An annual or biennial mustard found on roadsides and wastelands as a weed of arable land in Eurasia, the Mediterranean area, northern Africa, Scandinavia to north Africa, and Asia and naturalized in New Zealand. | [37,38,39,40,41] |
Sisymbrium orientale Syn.: S. columnae Jacq. | Asian hedge mustard, Indian hedge mustard, eastern rocket, oriental wild rocket, and London rocket. | Native to Europe, Asia, and north Africa, and further introduced in much of the rest of the world, including parts of North America and Australia. | [37,42,43] |
Sisymbrium erysimoides Desf. | Smooth mustard, and Mediterranean rocket. | A desert plant native to Middle Eastern Arab countries and naturalized in Australia, North America, and New Zealand. | [44,45,46] |
Fatty Acid | Alliaria petiolata | Sinapis alba | B. carinata | B. juncea | B. napus | B. nigra | B. rapa | Calepina irregularis | Camelina sativa | Erysimum repandum | Neslia paniculata | Sisymbrium erysimoides | S. officinale | S. orientale | Canola (low-erucic acid) B. napus |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total oil content (% od seed weight) | 15–30 | 25–36 | 30–47 | 25–45 | 40–50 | 21–40 | 25–45 | 16–36 | 38–43 | 20.1–40 | 15–25 | 30 | 7–12 | 22–30 | 33–50 |
Saturated fatty acids | |||||||||||||||
Palmitic acid (C16:0) | 3–4 | 2–7 | 2–12 | 2–4.5 | 2–7 | 2–4 | 2–4.5 | 0–15 | 4–8 | 7.0 | 3–17 | 10–15 | 2–8.0 | 8–10 | 3.3–6 |
Stearic acid (C18:0) | 0.3–0.5 | 0.1–3 | 2–3.5 | 1–2 | 0.5–2.5 | 1–2 | 1.5–2.5 | 2–3 | 2.1–2.3 | 2.0 | 1–4 | 0.5–1 | 0.3–1.5 | 0.1–1 | 1.1–2.5 |
Behenic acid (C22:0) | ND | 0.5–1 | ND | 0–1 | 0–1 | ND | ND | ND | 0.3 | 0.7 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ~2.0 |
Lignoceric acid (C24:0) | ND | ND | ND | 0–1 | 0–1 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ~0.2 |
Arachidic acid (C20:0) | 0.4–1 | 0.5–1 | ND | 0.5–1.5 | 0.1–2.5 | 0.5–1.5 | ND | ND | 1–1.8 | 2.0 | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.2–0.8 |
Unsaturated fatty acids | |||||||||||||||
Monounsaturated fatty acids | |||||||||||||||
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) | ND | 0.1–0.2 | 0.1–0.2 | 0.2–0.5 | 0.2–1.5 | 0.1–0.2 | 0.1–2.0 | ND | 0.07–0.1 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.1–0.6 |
Oleic acid (C18:1) | 6–9 | 15–39 | 7–19 | 8–33 | 8–63 | 9–23 | 11–62 | 0.1–2 | 12.7–14.8 | 7.0 | 9–36 | 10–15 | 1–7.5 | 3–7 | 52–66.9 |
Gadoleic/eicosenoic acid (20:1) | 4–5 | 6–12 | 5–9 | 5–12 | 1–13 | 5–8 | 1–11 | ND | 11.1–12.8 | 9.0 | ND | 3–4 | ND | 1–4 | ND |
Erucic acid (C22:1) | 41–49 | 23–51 | 35–45 | 22–55 | 14–55 | 27–46 | 9–51 | 3–7 | 2.3–3.5 | 17.0 | 0.1–1 | 15–20 | 8–17 | 11–18 | 0.3–1.6 |
Nervonic acid (C24:1) | 6–8 | 1.2–3 | ND | 0–2.5 | 0–2 | ND | ND | 0.1–1 | ND | 1.0 | 0.1–0.3 | ND | 0.5–1.5 | 1–0.6 | ND |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids | |||||||||||||||
Linoleic acid (C18:2) | 18–22 | 7–33 | 15–22 | 12–21 | 12–21 | 6–17 | 10–13 | ND | 2.4–24.3 | 17.0 | ND | 15–20 | ND | 10–14 | 16.1–28.8 |
Eicosadienoic acid (C20:2) | 0.5–1 | ND | ND | 0.3–1 | 0.5 | 3–4 | ND | ND | 11.1–12.8 | 2.0 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ~0.1 |
Linolenic acid (C18:3) | 4–7 | 8–20 | 16–20 | 8–20 | 8–14 | 3–15 | 1–17 | 7–26 | 33.7–36.9 | 33.0 | 4–10 | 20–31 | 18–30 | 35–42 | 6.4–14.1 |
Roughanic acid (C16:3) | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.7–1 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Other fatty acids | 1.7 | 0.1–2.2 | ND | 6–8 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Total MUFA | ND | 72.19 | 62.49 | 66.56 | ND | 60.8 | ND | 46.5 | 30–36 | ND | ND | 38.4 | 39.8 | ND | ND |
Total PUFA | ND | 2.05 | 32.65 | 29.59 | ND | 31.5 | ND | 39.6 | 50–60 | ND | ND | 38.9 | 47.2 | ND | ND |
Total SFA | ND | 4.48 | 4.57 | 3.82 | ND | 6.7 | ND | 13.5 | 13.3 | ND | ND | 21.4 | 13 | ND | <7 |
TUFA/TSFA | ND | ND | ND | 10.4 | ND | 13.8 | ND | 6.5 | ND | ND | ND | 3.6 | 6.7 | ND | ND |
Total polyphenol content | ND | 72.56 | 23.5 | 21.02 | 47.48 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
References | [92] | [93] | [93] | [93,94] | [95] | [94] | [86] | [31,94] | [96,97,98] | [35] | [94] | [35] | [38,39,94] | [99] | [63,100,101,102] |
Vitamin | Mustard Species (Amount per 100 g) | References |
---|---|---|
Vitamin A/carotenoid | Alliaria petiolata (contains more vitamin A than spinach, 13.3 mg), Sianpis alba, B. juncea (27 mg), B. nigra, Sisymbrium erysimoides | [16,19,35,44,122,123,124,125] |
Vitamin B Complex | [126] | |
Thiamine | B. napus (0.8 mg) | [126] |
Riboflavin | B. napus (0.3 mg) | [126] |
Niacin | B. napus (8.1 mg) | [126] |
Pyridoxine | B. napus (1.9 mg) | [126] |
Vitamin C/Ascorbic acid | Alliaria petiolata (contains more vitamin C than orange—261 mg), B. nigra, Erysimum repandum, S. officinale, B. juncea (72–89 mg) | [6,122,123,124,125,127], USDA National Nutrient data base |
Vitamin E/tocopherols (α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol, γ tocopherol is predominant) | Sinapis alba, Canola (B. napus) seed oil: (α tocopherols 12 mg, γ tocopherols 21.3 mg) | [35,128] |
Vitamin K | All rapeseeds including B. juncea (0.3 mg). Canola seed (B. napus) oil (70–150 µg) | [16,129], USDA National Nutrient data base, [130,131] |
Traditional Use | Mustards | References |
---|---|---|
Anti-microbial activity | Alliaria petiolata, Sisymbrium officinale, S. erysimoides, B. hirta, and B. nigra | [6,39,123,158,216,250,251,252] |
Antidiabetic activity | B. juncea, and B. nigra | [253,254] |
Treatment for vitamin C deficiency | A. petiolata, B. rapa, B. napus, and Erysimum repandum are antiscorbutic | [6,21,123,255] |
Diuretic activity | A. petiolata, B. juncea, B. napus, B. nigra, B. rapa, S. officinale, and S. orientale | [6,21,38,40,41,123,255,256,257,258,259] |
Expectorant activity | A. petiolata, S. orientale, S. officinale, and S. erysimoides | [6,38,40,41,258,259,260,261] |
Stimulant activity | A. petiolata, S. alba, B. juncea, and B. nigra | [6,256,257,262] |
Analgesic activity | B. rapa var. campestris, B. juncea, B. napus, S. erysimoides, S. officinale, B. carinata, Neslia paniculata, and Calepina irregularis | [21,44,123,160,242,256,263,264] |
Activity in cold and flu | Sinapis alba, S. officinale, S. erysimoides, B. napus, and B. nigra | [39,251,258,260,261] |
Anti-catarrhal activity | Sinapis alba, S. officinale, S. erysimoides, B. napus, and B. nigra | [39,251,258,260,261,265] |
Bronchitis | S. officinale, S. orientale, and S. erysimoides | [259,260,261] |
Anti-asthmatic activity | S. officinale | [38,39,40,41,258] |
Emetic activity | Sinapis alba, B. nigra, B. juncea, S. officinale, and B. nigra | [123,256,266] |
Anti-cancer activity | B. juncea, B. napus, B. rapa, S. officinale, and B compestris | [39,123,158,256,267] |
Effect on bowl | Sinapis alba, B. nigra, B. juncea, and S. officinale are used as laxatives. B. nigra is used as a carminative | [123,256,257,262,266] |
Rubefacient | B. rapa, B. juncea, and S. officinale | [24,30,39,256,268] |
Galactagogue | B. juncea | [256] |
Anti-gout potential | B. napus, and B. rapa | [21,123,255] |
Use in gall stone | B. napus, and B. rapa | [162,255,265] |
Use against alopecia | B. nigra | [257] |
Anti-dandruff activity | B. nigra | [257] |
Use in neuralgia | B. nigra | [257] |
Anti-spasmodic activity | B. nigra, and S. officinale | [257] |
Aphrodisiac activity | B. rapa, and B. nigra | [24,268] |
Use in hepatic and kidney colic | B. rapa | [162,255] |
Anti-inflammatory activity | B. rapa, S. erysimoides, and S. officinale | [44,255,269] |
Anthelmintic activity | S. orientale, and B. rapa var. campestris | [259,270] |
Remedial use in fever | S. orientale, and Erysimum repandum | [127,259] |
Use in dysentery | S. orientale | [259] |
Anti-addiction activity | S. officinale | [271] |
Use in the disorders voice and throat | S. officinale | [40] |
Appetising and digestive activities | S. officinale, B. nigra, and B. juncea | [40,41,256,257,258] |
Snake bite antidote | B. rapa var. campestris, and S. officinale | [40,41,258,270] |
Skin disorders | Neslia paniculata | [35,263] |
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Rahman, M.; Khatun, A.; Liu, L.; Barkla, B.J. Brassicaceae Mustards: Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action against Human Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 9039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25169039
Rahman M, Khatun A, Liu L, Barkla BJ. Brassicaceae Mustards: Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action against Human Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(16):9039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25169039
Chicago/Turabian StyleRahman, Mahmudur, Amina Khatun, Lei Liu, and Bronwyn J. Barkla. 2024. "Brassicaceae Mustards: Phytochemical Constituents, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action against Human Disease" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 16: 9039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25169039