Calprotectin, a Promising Serological Biomarker for the Early Diagnosis of Superinfections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Patients with COVID-19
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Study Cohorts
2.2. Serum Calprotectin Levels of Healthy Controls and Patients
2.3. Serum Calprotectin Levels in Relation to Age, Sex, and Body Mass Index
2.4. Serum Calprotectin Levels in Relation to Viral Load and Antibody Titer
2.5. Calprotectin in Relation to Dialysis and Vasopressor Therapy in Severe COVID-19
2.6. Correlation of Serum Calprotectin with Inflammatory Markers and White Blood Cell Count
2.7. Relationship of Serum Calprotectin to Bacterial and Fungal Superinfections and HSV Reactivation
2.8. Serum Calprotectin and Survival
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Study Cohort
4.2. Measurement of Serum Calprotectin
4.3. Microbiological Tests
4.4. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Moderate COVID-19 | Severe COVID-19 | Controls | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Males/Females (%) | 34/29 (54/46) | 42/18 (70/30) | 15/19 (44/56) | 0.116 |
Age (years) | 60 (22–83) | 57 (31–83) | 56 (50–81) | 0.492 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 26.3 (18.4–42.6) 32 | 29.4 (19.2–66.7) 56 | Not determined | 0.007 |
C-reactive protein mg/L | 26 (0–222) | 74 (1–367) | Not determined | <0.001 |
Procalcitonin ng/ml | 0.09 (0–24.90) | 0.24 (0.06–25.00) | Not determined | <0.001 |
LDH U/L | 224 (127–929) 39 | 378 (162–1534) | Not determined | <0.001 |
AP U/L | 96 (38–372) 29 | 99 (37–743) | Not determined | 0.943 |
Ferritin ng/mL | 573 (32–4826) 45 | 1088 (77–21976) 60 | Not determined | <0.001 |
IL-6 pg/mL | 19 (4–265) 37 | 36 (3–1175) | Not determined | 0.097 |
Neutrophils n/nL | 4.05 (0.13–23.10) | 8.18 (0.90–24.91) | Not determined | <0.001 |
Basophils n/nL | 0.03 (0–0.21) | 0.05 (0.01–0.17) | Not determined | 0.001 |
Eosinophils n/nL | 0.08 (0–1.19) | 0.04 (0–1.07) | Not determined | 0.223 |
Monocytes n/nL | 0.57 (0.07–2.52) | 0.71 (0.03–2.21) | Not determined | 0.042 |
Lymphocytes n/nL | 1.11 (0.09–57.83) | 1.20 (0–75.95) | Not determined | 0.846 |
Immature Granulocytes n/nL | 0.03 (0–1.38) | 0.25 (0.04–2.92) | Not determined | <0.001 |
Viral Load | 8600 (48–19 × 106) 57 | 14000 (95–52 × 107) 49 | Not determined | 0.090 |
Antibody AU/mL | 101 (14–1487) 10 | 661 (17–1939) 50 | Not determined | 0.037 |
Intervention/Drug | No | Yes |
---|---|---|
Moderate | ||
Dialysis (6 patients) | 6.34 (1.09–53.67) | 12.19 (3.94–51.68) |
Severe | ||
Dialysis (7 patients) | 18.55 (7.84–51.36) | 24.70 (9.02–40.29) |
Catecholamine (41 patients) | 17.26 (8.16–40.50) | 21.36 (7.84–51.36) |
C-Reactive Protein | Procalcitonin | IL-6 | Ferritin | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moderate | Severe | Moderate | Severe | Moderate | Severe | Moderate | Severe |
0.350 ** | 0.354 ** | 0.215 | 0.437 *** | 0.007 | 0.236 | 0.226 | 0.181 |
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Keller, D.; Mester, P.; Räth, U.; Krautbauer, S.; Schmid, S.; Greifenberg, V.; Müller, M.; Kunst, C.; Buechler, C.; Pavel, V. Calprotectin, a Promising Serological Biomarker for the Early Diagnosis of Superinfections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Patients with COVID-19. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 9294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179294
Keller D, Mester P, Räth U, Krautbauer S, Schmid S, Greifenberg V, Müller M, Kunst C, Buechler C, Pavel V. Calprotectin, a Promising Serological Biomarker for the Early Diagnosis of Superinfections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Patients with COVID-19. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(17):9294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179294
Chicago/Turabian StyleKeller, Dennis, Patricia Mester, Ulrich Räth, Sabrina Krautbauer, Stephan Schmid, Verena Greifenberg, Martina Müller, Claudia Kunst, Christa Buechler, and Vlad Pavel. 2024. "Calprotectin, a Promising Serological Biomarker for the Early Diagnosis of Superinfections with Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria in Patients with COVID-19" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 17: 9294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25179294