Role of Divalent Cations in Infections in Host–Pathogen Interaction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hypercalcemia in Clinical Tuberculosis
3. Calcium and Magnesium Deficiency in Pulmonary Tuberculosis with Multiple Cavities in Persons with or without Diabetes Mellitus
4. Survival Mechanisms of Mycobacteria Attacked by Macrophages Involve Calcium Extrusion
5. Copper (Cu2+) in Elevated Concentrations Can Be Toxic for M Tuberculosis and Kidney Function in Persons with Diabetes Mellitus
6. Zinc (Zn2+) Deficiency in Malnourished Persons with Tuberculosis
7. Iron (Fe2+) Deficiency and Excess May Participate in the Clinical Course of Pulmonary Tuberculosis
8. Magnesium (Mg2+)
9. Manganese (Mn2+) Is Present in Metalloproteins
10. Selenium Ions May Have a Direct Anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis Effect
11. Pulmonary Tuberculosis/COVID-19 Coinfection
12. Calcium (CA2+) Mechanisms in Persons with Diabetes Mellitus as a Risk Factor for Tuberculosis and Parasitic Disorders
13. Chelation Therapy
14. Discussion of New Concepts for Development of Medications against Pulmonary Tuberculosis
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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a | ||||||
Blood Coagulation | ||||||
Conformational changes allow prothrombin to bind efficiently to phospholipid surfaces | ||||||
Promotes platelet adhesion to blood vessel endothelium with von Willebrand factor | ||||||
Bone Cortex | ||||||
With phosphate increases mass during growth phase | ||||||
With phosphate and exercise increases strength | ||||||
Cell Signaling | ||||||
Stimulates mitochondrial oxidation of ketoglutarate | ||||||
Stimulates mitochondrial oxidation of pyruvate dehydrogenase | ||||||
Digestive System | ||||||
Stimulates gastric acid secretion | ||||||
by Vitamin D-activated calbindin, contributes to intestinal absorption of calcium | ||||||
Kidney | ||||||
Reabsorbed passively by proximal tubule | ||||||
Ca2+ sensing receptor controls absorption in loop of Henle | ||||||
Klotho gene controls calcium absorption with transient receptor protein | ||||||
Muscle | ||||||
Contributes to orderly release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum | ||||||
Contributes to orderly return of calcium to sarcoplasmic reticulum | ||||||
Increases expression of ryanodine receptor involved in Ca2+ release | ||||||
Activates/deactivates actin–myosin for contraction/relaxation | ||||||
b | ||||||
Element | Ion | Neuromuscular | Cardiovascular | Gastrointestinal | Renal | Other |
Calcium | Ca2+ | + | − | + | − | lung |
Cadmium | Cd2+ | + | + | + | − | skin |
Copper | Cu2+ | + | + | + | + | - |
Iron | Fe2+ | − | − | + | + | lymphatic |
Lead | Pb2+ | + | − | + | + | skin |
Manganese | Mn2+ | + | + | + | − | - |
Magnesium | Mg2+ | + | + | − | − | reproductive |
Selenium | Se2+ | + | + | + | + | skin |
Silver | Ag2+ | − | − | − | − | skin |
Zinc | Zn2+ | + | − | + | + | reproductive |
Parathyroid Hormone | |||
---|---|---|---|
Organ level | |||
Stimulates kidney to synthesize vitamin D Increases calcium absorption in kidney tubule Inhibits phosphorus absorption in kidney tubule Decreases calcium phosphate bone mineral mass Cooperates with vitamin D in increasing bone mass | |||
Cell level | |||
Increases expression of alkaline phosphatase Increases expression of bone morphogenetic protein Increases expression of collagen type1 alpha Increases expression of osteoblast transcription factor (Tmem119) Increases expression of calcium-binding protein (osteocalcin) | |||
Vitamin D * | |||
Organ Level | |||
Increases intestinal absorption of calcium Decreases cytokines of inflammation | |||
Cell level | |||
Inhibits inflammation cascade at nuclear factor kappa beta Decreases cytokines of inflammation Supports functions of macrophages Activates nitric acid synthase in endothelial cells Decreases expression of receptor for advanced glycolated end-products | |||
Calcitonin | |||
Organ level | |||
Bone | |||
Contracts osteoclasts Diminishes osteoclast mobility Decreases loss of bone mineral mass | |||
Kidney | |||
Decreases reabsorption of calcium, magnesium Decreases reabsorption of phosphate Decreases reabsorption of sodium => diuresis | |||
Cell level | |||
Binds to its receptors on osteoclasts Promotes vitamin D production enzymes
|
A. Vitamin D increases serum calcium level due to: |
1. Increased sunlight exposure with increased synthesis of vitamin D by skin |
2. Increased 1-alpha hydroxylase from lung, intestine in addition to kidney |
3. Overheating with dehydration |
B. Parathyroid hormone increases serum calcium level due to: |
1. Lysis of bone cortex |
2. Promotion of synthesis of vitamin D |
3. Increased expression with hyperphosphatemia of kidney failure |
C. Calcitonin regulates increased serum calcium levels due to |
1. Inhibition of bone cortex lysis by parathyroid hormone |
2. Increased expression during inflammation which might injure kidney function |
Pathology | Results |
---|---|
Diabetes Mellitus: decreased insulin secretion | improved glucose control |
Cardiovascular Disease: | |
Heart: angina pectoris, use of nitroglycerine | fewer events, decreased use of nitroglycerine |
Vascular | |
Central: dizziness/vertigo | fewer events |
Peripheral: ulcers, gangrene | healing, no amputations |
Stage of Disease Activity | Clinical Evidence | Treatment |
---|---|---|
Primary infection: dormant or latent TB infection | Pulmonary nodules with hibernating pathogen (autophagy completed). Few symptoms, evidenced by skin testing and chest X-ray only | Antibiotics per protocol * |
Active but quiescent or evasive | One-fourth to one-half within the macrophages (autophagy commenced). Symptoms primarily systemic (fatigue, fever, loss of appetite and weight, weakness) | Antibiotics per protocol * |
Active: aggressive pulmonary | Pulmonary cavitation with respiratory symptoms added to above | Antibiotics per protocol * |
Active and disseminated | Miliary: multiorgan involvement | Multiple antibiotics * |
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D’Elia, J.A.; Weinrauch, L.A. Role of Divalent Cations in Infections in Host–Pathogen Interaction. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25189775
D’Elia JA, Weinrauch LA. Role of Divalent Cations in Infections in Host–Pathogen Interaction. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(18):9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25189775
Chicago/Turabian StyleD’Elia, John A., and Larry A. Weinrauch. 2024. "Role of Divalent Cations in Infections in Host–Pathogen Interaction" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 18: 9775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25189775