Supplementation of Micro- and Macronutrients—A Role of Nutritional Status in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Role of Trace Elements in Hepatic Inflammation
2.1. Manganese
2.2. Aluminum
2.3. Cadmium
2.4. Chromium
2.5. Lead
3. Micronutrients Involved in NAFLD
3.1. Iron
3.2. Copper
3.3. Zinc
3.4. Selenium
3.5. Magnesium
3.6. Vitamin A
3.7. Vitamin B
3.8. Vitamin C
3.9. Vitamin D
3.10. Vitamin E
3.11. Carotenoids
4. Macronutrients Involved in NAFLD
4.1. Carbohydrates
4.2. Fat
4.3. Proteins
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AASLD | American Association for the Study of Liver Disease |
ALT | alanine aminotransferase |
BCAA | branched-chain amino acid |
BMI | body mass index |
COX | cytochrome c oxidase |
DHA | docosahexaenoic acid |
DIOS | dysmetabolic iron overload syndrome |
DMT1 | divalent metal transporter 1 |
DNL | de novo lipogenesis |
DOW | deep ocean water |
CPT1 | carnitine palmitoyltransferase I |
EASL | European Association for the Study of the Liver |
EGCG | epigallocatechin-3-gallate |
EPA | eicosapentaenoic acid |
ER | endoplasmic reticulum |
EVOO | extra virgin olive oil |
FFA | free fatty acid |
FGF21 | fibroblast growth factor 21 |
GLUT4 | glucose transporter 4 |
GPCRs | G protein-coupled receptors |
GPx | glutathione peroxidase |
HC | hepatocellular cells |
HCC | hepatocellular carcinoma |
HCY | homocysteine |
HDL | high-density lipoprotein |
HIC | hepatic iron content |
HSC | hepatic stellate cells |
HSFx | high-stability fucoxanthin |
IRS-1 | insulin receptor substrate 1 |
LCAT | lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase |
LDL | low-density lipoprotein |
MDA | malondialdehyde |
MEK1 | mitogen-activated protein kinase-1 |
MGIG | magnesium isoglycyrrhizinate |
MT | metallothioneins |
NAD | nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide |
NADPH | nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate |
NAFLD | on-alcoholic fatty liver disease |
NAS | NAFLD Activity Score |
NASH | non-alcoholic steatohepatitis |
NHANES | National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey |
OA | oleic acid |
OS | oxidative stress |
PNPLA3 | patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing protein 3 |
PPARα | proliferator-activated receptor alpha |
PPARγ | peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma |
RA | retinoic acid |
RES | reticuloendothelial system |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
SREBP | sterol regulatory element-binding protein |
SOD | superoxide dismutase |
T2DM | type 2 diabetes |
TAK1 | TGF-activated kinase-1 |
TCA | tricarboxylic acid |
UCP2 | uncoupling protein 2 |
UPR | unfolded protein response |
VA | Vitamin A |
WD | Wilson’s disease |
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Trace Elements in NAFLD | ||
---|---|---|
Element | Role | References |
Iron (Fe) | Iron catalyzes the generation of ROS, leading to hepatic inflammation and ultimately tissue deterioration. | [49] |
Zinc (Zn) | Zinc supplementation results in reduced hepatic steatosis and damage, reduced lipid deposition in hepatocytes, improvement in glucose metabolism, and insulin signaling.Zinc deficiency leads to elevated ROS levels, increased risk of DNA damage, protein modification, and carcinogenesis. | [106,152] |
Selenium (Se) | Selenium supplementation can improve the functioning of liver selenoproteins, alleviating liver steatosis, damage, and fibrosis in mouse models of NAFLD. However, increased levels of selenium were positively linked with higher levels of tri-glycerides and LDL cholesterol. Patients with NAFLD had significantly greater selenium contents when compared to healthy controls. | [163,166,370] |
Copper (Cu) | Excessive levels of copper stimulate lipogenesis and lipolysis by the activation of the Nrf2-PPARγ pathway and cellular apoptosis. Copper deficiency is correlated with liver steatosis and impedes the export of the liver’s iron, leading to its accumulation. | [86,371,372] |
Magnesium (Mg) | Low magnesium levels may contribute to insulin resistance by reducing glucose use in cells, as well as impaired mitochondrial activity, inflammation, protein kinase C translocation problems, and oxidative stress. | [200,210] |
Vitamin A | Vitamin A and its retinoids can inhibit hepatic cell transformation, suppress the proliferation of hepatoma cells, prevent the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages, mitigate inflammatory reactions, and provide antioxidant protection against oxidative stress. | [283,284] |
Vitamin B | Vitamin B3 is a precursor to coenzymes involved in lipid metabolism—NAD and NADPH. Niacin increases redox potential, lowers hepatic cholesterol content, and has a protective effect on pre-existing hepatic steatosis. It is suggested that Vitamin B6 has a pathogenic role in the increase in hepatic steatosis. | [287,292] |
Vitamin C | Ascorbic acid is related to the regulation of adiponectin, which decelerates lipid accumulation in the liver, and inflammation of hepatic cells, which possibly lowers the risk of NAFLD. | [294] |
Vitamin D | Vitamin D deficiency causes the activation of Toll-like receptors which leads to severe liver inflammation and oxidative stress. | [303,305] |
Vitamin E | Vitamin E is an antioxidant, it reduces OS and decelerates the pathogenesis of NASH. It lowers the inflammatory response by increasing the expression of adiponectin. It prevents lipid in the liver, by downregulating a membrane trans-porter protein. | [247,310] |
Carotenoids | Possess strong anti-inflammatory activities and cancer prevention through their antioxidant activities and lycopene is said to reduce high-fat diet-induced oxidative stress and liver damage. | [334,339,342] |
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Tyczyńska, M.; Hunek, G.; Szczasny, M.; Brachet, A.; Januszewski, J.; Forma, A.; Portincasa, P.; Flieger, J.; Baj, J. Supplementation of Micro- and Macronutrients—A Role of Nutritional Status in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 4916. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25094916
Tyczyńska M, Hunek G, Szczasny M, Brachet A, Januszewski J, Forma A, Portincasa P, Flieger J, Baj J. Supplementation of Micro- and Macronutrients—A Role of Nutritional Status in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024; 25(9):4916. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25094916
Chicago/Turabian StyleTyczyńska, Magdalena, Gabriela Hunek, Martyna Szczasny, Adam Brachet, Jacek Januszewski, Alicja Forma, Piero Portincasa, Jolanta Flieger, and Jacek Baj. 2024. "Supplementation of Micro- and Macronutrients—A Role of Nutritional Status in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25, no. 9: 4916. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25094916