A Review of Human-Elephant Ecological Relations in the Malay Peninsula: Adaptations for Coexistence
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Study Species
2.3. Literature Review
2.4. Field Observations
2.5. Analysis
3. Overview of the Human–Elephant Ecological Overlap
4. Spatio-Temporal Niche Overall and Partitioning: The Elephant and the Person in the Room
4.1. Eurytopic Sympatry: From Coast to Mountain Crest
4.2. Shared Pathways: Elephant Forest Trails
4.3. Facultative Arborealism
4.4. Temporal Niche Partitioning: Diurnal & Nocturnal Activity Patterns
5. Trophic Niche: One Bite at a Time
5.1. Finding Food in the Rainforest
5.2. Dessert in the Green Desert: Carbohydrates from Palms
5.3. A Proboscidean Perspective on the Wild Yam Problem
5.4. Honey Hunters
5.5. Fruit Gardeners
5.6. Swidden Farming: Elephants in the Fallow Field
5.7. Predation: Calories from Animal Protein
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Activity Pattern (Section 4.4) | ||
---|---|---|
Habitat (Section 4.1) | | |
| | |
| | |
Food Source (Section 5 of This Paper) | Elephants | Humans | Tigers |
---|---|---|---|
Plants | |||
| ⚫ | ⚫ | ● |
| ⚫ | ● | ○ |
| ● | ⚫ | ○ |
Animals (Section 5.7) | |||
| ○ | ⚫ | ● |
| ○ | ● | ⚫ |
| ○ | ⚫ | ● |
Group | Height Above Ground | Rationale Given | Period & Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Korowai, New Guinea | 35 m | slavers, “cannibals” | 20th century [74] |
Illongot, Luzon | 18 m | head-hunters | 20th century [75] |
Temuan, Selangor | 9–12 m | elephants | ca. 1900 [76] |
Aboriginal Malays | 9 m | not given | 19th century [77] |
Semai, Pahang | 4.6–6 m | not given | 19th century [78] |
Semelai, Pahang | 4 m | tigers, elephants | 1980 (R. Gianno pers. comm., 24 July 2021) |
Temuan), Selangor | 3.7 m | elephants | 19th century [79,80] |
Temiar, Perak/Kelantan | 3 m | tigers, slavers, elephants | 20th century [64,81] |
Jakun, Johor | 1.5–2.7 m* | elephants, tigers | ca. 1900 [76,82] |
Menraq (in cliffs and “large” trees) | elephants, tigers | ca. 1900 [51,76,83] | |
Semai (in the “sturdiest longhouse”) | elephants, slavers | ca. 1960 [84] |
Energy | Protein | |
---|---|---|
Elephant (1) | 290.3 MJ (2) | 2400 g (6.7 g per kg BW) |
Human (3) | 10.9 MJ | 46 g (0.7 g per kg BW) |
Food source | Gross MJ (1) | Nett MJ (2) | Protein | Ref. | Section |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 9361 | 8392 | 283,738 g | [4] | Section 5.7 |
| 1314 | 1149 | 180 g | [96,97] | Section 5.2 |
| 310 | 246 | 8195 g | [97] | Section 5.7 |
| 71 | 31 | 220 g | [53] | Section 5.3 |
| 53 | 15 | 13 g | [98,99] | Section 5.4 |
| 51 | 13 | 2170 g | [53] | Section 5.7 |
| 33 | -3 | 79 g | – | Section 5.5 |
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Lim, T.; Campos-Arceiz, A. A Review of Human-Elephant Ecological Relations in the Malay Peninsula: Adaptations for Coexistence. Diversity 2022, 14, 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14010036
Lim T, Campos-Arceiz A. A Review of Human-Elephant Ecological Relations in the Malay Peninsula: Adaptations for Coexistence. Diversity. 2022; 14(1):36. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14010036
Chicago/Turabian StyleLim, Teckwyn, and Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz. 2022. "A Review of Human-Elephant Ecological Relations in the Malay Peninsula: Adaptations for Coexistence" Diversity 14, no. 1: 36. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14010036