The Diversity of Archaeological Animal and Plant Remains Discovered at 18th–19th-Century Sites in Iași City (NE Romania)

Abstract

Animal and plant remains recovered from two archaeological sites in Iași city (NE Romania) were analyzed in this work. The aim of this study was to contribute to the economic and environmental evaluation of an old urban settlement. The analyzed sites, both of value in archaeological preventive research, are dated to the 18th–19th centuries. The archaeozoological analysis consisted of anatomical, taxonomic, and taphonomic identifications, quantification, estimations of age at slaughter and sex, and osteometry. The results revealed that the animal remains are of domestic origin, as indicated by traces of butchering, and can be mainly described in terms of their frequencies (i.e., number of identified specimens and minimum number of individuals), selection for slaughter, morphology, and size. The results show that animal husbandry (e.g., cattle, sheep/goat, pig, and horse) had significant importance in the economy of the settlement, and cattle were preferred for consumption. Few remains were identified for wild mammals (i.e., red deer, wild boar, and hare), birds, and mollusks. The phytolith analysis indicated that some plant resources were used in the economy of this settlement. The identification of opal silica bodies revealed the presence of grasses and cultivated cereals.

1. Introduction

The beginning of modern times in Eastern Europe (18th–19th centuries) was characterized by important transformations in economic, social, and mental structures, ideologies, and the natural environment, leading to the modernization of urban settlements in Moldavia [1,2,3]. The period covered by this research was also characterized by significant cultural and anthropological diversity and lifestyle changes, especially of the elites [3,4,5]. The demography in this period was marked by a significant increase in life expectancy, which contributed to the awareness and improvement in living conditions including food, as well as the progress of medicine [6,7]. The urban population’s food was strictly determined by the village’s ability to provide animal and vegetal resources, which emphasizes the role of the rural world, the population’s dependence on its productivity, and the maintenance of a close link between the village and the city [8].

The reconstruction of daily lives in past societies, including medieval and pre-modern ones, cannot be accomplished without information about the economy, ecology, and even ethnology derived from archaeozoological and archaeobotanical data [9,10,11,12]. In the case of the old city of Iași, for which written accounts on the fauna and vegetation diversity are sometimes lacunary and ambiguous, such a study could provide a more comprehensive view.

Archaeozoological materials typically contain faunal remains with strong mineralization (e.g., bones, teeth, cornual processes, antlers, shells), which are most often found to be related to the animals consumed within the human communities, as indicated by traces of slaughter and butchery [13]. The study of faunal remains can provide information about the diversity of animal resources used in various ways by the inhabitants of a past settlement, not only for food but also as raw materials (e.g., bone industry) or in rituals and/or burial practices. Archaeozoological remains can also be valuable indicators in the evaluation of ecology, seasonality, social structures, and zootechnical practices [14,15]. Understanding that animals were significantly important in many of the transformations during the modern period, an increasing number of researchers have investigated animal remains from the archaeological sites of those centuries [16,17,18,19,20]. In Romania, such studies are isolated and, only recently, the attention of archaeologists and archaeozoologists has also been directed toward faunal remains from modern times [21,22].

Due to their siliceous composition, phytoliths are key indicators for understanding past environments and human activities. These microscopic silica particles, formed within the cells of plants—particularly grasses—are resistant to decay and can persist in soils and sediments long after organic matter has decomposed. Phytolith analysis can provide a view of how past human societies adapted to and shaped their natural environments. For instance, these indicators have been used to trace agricultural practices in early medieval Europe. Gyulai et al. [23] examined phytoliths from archaeological sites in the Carpathian Basin (NE Hungary), assessing agricultural stability and changes over time. Similarly, Devos et al. [24] demonstrated, through phytolith analysis, agricultural activities at the early medieval trading center of Antwerp (Belgium), specifically providing evidence of Hordeum sp. (barley) cultivation. Prado et al. [25] used phytoliths and micro-algae in a multi-proxy approach to investigate architectural and environmental aspects, as well as the daily activities of a Pictish roundhouse, revealing the use of locally sourced materials in the structure’s construction and, at the same time, offering insights into cooking and craftwork practices. In Romania, medieval and modern settlements have not yet been examined through phytolith analysis, with the present study being the first one of this kind. Thus far, most studies have focused on prehistoric [26] as well as Roman and Roman–Byzantine sites [27].

This research was focused on the city of Iași in the 18th–19th centuries, from which archaeological remains of plants and animals were analyzed. The work was aimed at evaluating the diversity of animal and plant resources in the urban economy and environment, as determined based on archaeobotanical and archaeozoological results.

2. Historical and Archaeological Context

Iași was an important urban settlement in medieval Moldova, and it was first documented in the 14th century when it appeared on a list of Slavonic origin as being a city near the Prut River. Starting with the 15th century, the city expanded, especially due to the afflux of population from the villages, but also as a result of the establishment of fairs for craftspeople and traders that came from other regions [28]. In 1564, the capital of Moldova was moved to Iași, and this change in status from a simple fair to that of a royal court led to accelerated development of the city, further attracting craftspeople and merchants, most of whom were foreigners such as Armenians, Hungarians, Poles, the French, and Venetians [28,29,30]. The anthropological structure of the Iași city population changed over time under the influences of some foreign groups with whom they interacted. This evolution of the human population was also highlighted by paleoanthropological studies that explored some of the necropolises of the city [31,32]. Human dietary habits have already been investigated through the evaluation of dental macro- and micro-wear [33], but it is necessary to expand the knowledge on dietary habits with data regarding the diversity of plant and animal resources.

The preventive investigations carried out in 2018–2019 on the plots at 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street and 5th Mihai Eminescu Street add to the archaeological research carried out in the last three decades in this area, contributing to the identification and mapping of the old habitation traces at the limits of the medieval and modern city of Iași. The animal and plant remains analyzed in this study were recovered from two archaeological sites in Iași city, NE Romania (47°9′44″ N 27°35′20″ E). The remains are described briefly in the following paragraphs.

Site 1: 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street. The preventive archaeological research at 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street (formerly Crișan) in Iași city was carried out in 2018, within the perimeter of the site “Historical Center of the Iași Municipality,” LMI IS-I-s-A-03504, about 25 m W from the church of St. George-Lozonschi (built 1800, LMI IS-II-m-B-03807), but also in the immediate vicinity of other buildings included in the List of Historical Monuments in Iași. According to the written historical sources, the area has been inhabited since the 17th century, belonging to the semi-rural landscape of the medieval and pre-modern town located on the lower terrace of the former floodplain of Bahlui River.

The investigation of the site was carried out on its whole surface through opening some research units (trenches and boxes) and preserving witness intervals between them, which were removed after recording the stratigraphic data in order to achieve exhaustive study of the entire plot (Figure 1). Thus, three trenches (marked S1–S3) and three boxes (marked A–C) were excavated. In S1, the excavation highlighted three construction stages, with the oldest one being documented in 1835. The skeletal remains of ten pond turtles were recovered from the barren yellow clay at the base of cellar 2. The animals were huddled together, most probably for hibernation, suggesting their entry into the cellar during a period when the house was uninhabited and immediately before the collapse of cellar 2, which trapped the animals inside. Apart from the masonry elements uncovered on the southern side of the site, about six domestic waste pits were intercepted in trench S1. All of these pits are intrusions from the modern and contemporary period, which transported out-of-place diverse archaeological materials (e.g., fragments of pots, jugs, saucers, cups, Ottoman fritware, Chinese and Western porcelains, and iron artifacts, as well as animal skeletal remains). Three large pits were investigated in trench S2, containing large quantities of potsherds and osteological material of animal origin.

Site 2: 5th Mihai Eminescu Street. The 2019 preventive archaeological research at the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site aimed at the complete investigation of the surface that would have been affected by the construction of a new building in the area. The area under scrutiny is part of the “Historical Center of the Iași Municipality,” and is of increased interest, particularly regarding the 17th–19th centuries. Thus, the foundations of at least three surface structures were identified, as well as nine pits used as household waste dumps. The complete research of the pits was not possible due to property boundaries or the proximity of neighboring buildings. The archaeological material, consisting mostly of animal bones and ceramic fragments, is dated to the 18th–19th centuries. Of the twelve archaeological features, only seven are of particular interest in the present study. These features (i.e., Cx. 2–5, Cx. 7, Cx. 10, and Cx. 12) are household waste pits, which produced an interesting array of finds (e.g., coins, fragments of everyday use ceramic pots, stove tiles, Turkish-made smoking pipes, metal objects, and glass, as well as animal bones). Two Polish bronze coins were also discovered in Cx. 2 and Cx. 10, both issued in the 17th century (AE, 0.79 g, 15 mm, Poland, John II Casimir, solidus, 1660-1662; AE, 0.28 g, 11 × 14 mm Poland, 17th century), as well as a Turkish silver coin (AR, 0.29 g, 15 mm, perforated, Ottoman Empire, Mustafa III, 1 para, year 1185 AH/1771-1772).

3. Materials and Methods

In this work, samples of animal and plant remains (i.e., skeletal fragments and phytoliths, respectively) were analyzed. The samples were recovered from preventive investigations carried out in 2018–2019 at archaeological sites located at 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino and 5th Mihai Eminescu Streets in Iași city, NE Romania. Archaeozoological and archaeobotanical analyses were conducted in the Laboratory of Bioarchaeology, Faculty of Biology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi, Romania.

Archaeozoology. Two archaeozoological samples were analyzed, both dated to the 18th and 19th centuries according to the archaeological artifacts discovered at the sites. The first sample, coming from an archaeological site located at 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street (Sample A1), consists of 651 animal remains, and the second sample, recovered from 5th Mihai Eminescu Street (Sample A2), includes 871 remains. Both archaeozoological samples were hand-retrieved, without sediment sieving, which led to qualitative and quantitative underestimations of some taxa.

The archaeozoological analysis consisted of anatomical, taxonomic, and taphonomic identifications, quantifications of samples, estimations of age at slaughter and sex, and osteometry. For anatomical and taxonomic identifications, comparative osteological collections were used. Concerning the taphonomy, different types of traces were identified on the animal bone fragments, such as of anthropogenic origin (e.g., butchering, burning, and processing) and/or from other animals (e.g., gnawing traces by dogs or lesser wild carnivores) [14,34]. Quantification of the samples was based on the number of identified specimens (NISP) and the minimum number of individuals (MNI) estimated for the identified mammal species [13]. The estimation of slaughter ages was carried out both on the basis of the dentition and the postcranial skeleton, using data from Udrescu et al. [14], Barone [35], and Reitz and Wing [13]. The mature/immature separation in domestic animals also took into account the age of sexual maturity, with the limit being 2.5 years for cattle, 1.5 years for sheep/goat, and 13 months for pig [14]. Sex estimation was conducted only for cattle, based on the morphometric characteristics of the metapodial bones. The variation ranges of the metapodial indices for the cattle sexes (i.e., female, male, and castrated) were taken from Udrescu et al. [14]. The measurements respected the A. von den Driesch guide [36], and the resulting data were used to separate domestic and wild forms (i.e., Sus domesticus/Sus scrofa), and to estimate the sex and withers height in Bos taurus. To calculate the cattle wither height, the coefficients of Fock [37] were used.

Archaeobotany. For the phytolith analysis, 16 samples were extracted from different cultural layers (e.g., pits) across the two archaeological sites under examination, with eight samples taken from each site (EMI Samples 1-8 for 5th Mihai Eminescu Street, and CRISAN Samples 1–8 for 10th Architect G.M. Cantacuzino Street; Figure 2 and Figure 3).

Approximately 3 g of sediment from each sample underwent a chemical process based on a method adapted from Lentfer and Boyd [38]. To extract phytoliths, the sediment samples were treated with hydrochloric acid (35%), potassium hydroxide (10%), sodium polytungstate (density = 2.35), and hydrogen peroxide (30%). For microscopic examination, a single drop of the resulting mixture was placed on a slide. Immersion oil served as the medium for observation. The terminology followed the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 2.0 [39]. All samples were examined using a transmission optical microscope at 400× magnification. The phytoliths in both sites’ samples were well-preserved, allowing for the clear identification of over 250 phytoliths per sample. There were no unidentified forms in the samples. The terminology followed the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 2.0 [39].

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Archaeozoology

Sample A1 included 651 remains attributed to mollusks, fish, birds, and mammals (

Table 1. Distribution of animal remains by taxonomic group (NISP—number of identified specimens).

Assemblage	Sample A1		Sample A2
Faunal Group	NISP	%	NISP	%
Mammals	852	97.82	639	98.16
Birds	13	1.49	9	1.38
Fish	2	0.23	1	0.15
Mollusks	4	0.46	2	0.31
Total sample	871	100	651	100

). The first three faunal groups had a very low representation in the sample. The NISP percentages were as follows: 0.31% mollusks, 0.15% fish, and 1.38% birds; the largest part of the sample was represented by the mammal remains at 98.16%. Sample 2 consisted of 871 remains, which were also attributed to four taxonomic classes: 0.46% mollusks, 0.23% fish, 1.49% birds, and 97.82% mammals (Table 1).

Among the mollusks, only river mussel (Unio sp.) was identified, with four valves in Sample A1 and two in Sample A2. For fish, only two fragments were identified in Sample A1, based on which the presence of Eurasian carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Wels catfish (Silurus glanis) was established; in Sample A2, only one Teleostei radia was identified. A total of 13 bone remains were from birds (in Sample A1), all attributed to chickens (Gallus domesticus); and in Sample A2, out of the nine bird remains, six were from chickens.

Most of the faunal remains in each sample were food waste, with butchering traces identified on approximately 40% of the specimens in each sample group (

Table 2. Distribution of remains with taphonomy evidence (NISP—number of identified specimens).

Assemblage	Sample A1		Sample A2
Taphonomy Evidence	NISP	%	NISP	%
Remains with butchering traces	349	40.07	254	39.02
Remains with burning traces	4	0.46	6	0.92
Remains with animal teeth marks	17	1.95	5	0.77
Manufactured bones and antlers	0	0.00	3	0.46
Total sample	871	-	651	-

). In Sample A1, 349 bones showed butchering traces, four had burning traces, and 17 had dog teeth marks. In Sample A2, 254 bones showed butchering traces, six had burning traces, three were fragments of red deer antlers (waste from processing to make objects), and five had dog teeth marks. There were no traces of human impact on dog bones, suggesting that this species had no alimentary purpose.

The proportions of domestic and wild mammals in both samples were similar, consisting of approximately 96% domestic mammals and 4% wild mammals as NISP (

Table 3. Quantification of mammal remains based on the number of identified specimens (NISPs).

Assemblage	Sample A1		Sample A2
Species	NISP	%	NISP	%
Bos taurus (cattle)	536	66.01	447	73.28
Ovis aries/Capra hircus (sheep/goat)	197	24.26	95	15.57
Sus domesticus (pig)	42	5.17	24	3.93
Canis familiaris (dog)	4	0.49	3	0.49
Equus ferus caballus (horse)	2	0.25	18	2.95
Total domestic mammals	781	96.18	587	96.23
Cervus elaphus (red deer)	15	1.85	18	2.95
Sus scrofa (wild boar)	11	1.35	5	0.82
Lepus europaeus (European hare)	5	0.62	0	0.00
Total wild mammals	31	3.82	23	3.77
Total identified mammals	812	100.00	610	100.00
Unidentified mammals	40	-	29	-
Total mammals	852	-	639	-

). Thus, both archaeozoological datasets highlight a preference for the exploitation of domestics. The following species were identified: Bos taurus (cattle), Ovis aries (sheep), Capra hircus (goat), Sus domesticus (pig), Equus ferus caballus (horse), and Canis familiaris (dog).

Cattle were preferred for consumption, followed by sheep/goat and pig. Cattle represented 66% of the total identified mammal remains in Sample A1, and 73% in Sample A2 (Table 3). Based on the minimum number of estimated individuals, cattle represent about 53% in Sample A1 and 47% in Sample A2 (

Table 4. Quantification of mammal remains by the minimum number of individuals (MNI) and estimation of ages at slaughter (M—mature age; I—immature age).

Assemblage	Sample A1			Sample A2
Species	MNI	%	Age Class	MNI	%	Age Class
Bos taurus	26	53.06	23 M, 3 I	14	46.67	12 M, 2 I
Ovis aries/Capra hircus	11	22.45	8 M, 3 I	6	20.00	5 M, 1 I
Sus domesticus	4	8.16	3 M, 1 I	3	10.00	2 M, 1 I
Canis familiaris	2	4.08	2 M	1	3.33	1 M
Equus ferus caballus	1	2.04	1 M	2	6.67	2 M
Total domestic mammals	44	89.80	-	26	86.67	-
Cervus elaphus	3	6.12	3 M	3	10.00	3 M
Sus scrofa	1	2.04	1 M	1	3.33	1 M
Lepus europaeus	1	2.04	1 M	0	0.00	-
Total wild mammals	5	10.20	-	4	13.33	-
Total mammals	49	100.00	-	30	100.00	-

). In Sample A1, based on 536 remains attributed to Bos taurus, a minimum number of 26 individuals was estimated, of which twenty-three were slaughtered at mature age (over 2.5 years old) and three at immature age (under 2.5 years old). In Sample A2, based on 447 remains identified for this species, a minimum number of fourteen individuals was estimated, of which twelve were slaughtered at mature age (over 2.5 years old) and only two at immature age (under 2.5 years old). Figure 4 shows that in Sample A1, 59.3% of the cattle remains belong to the axial skeleton and 40.7% to the appendicular skeleton; in Sample A2, 47% of the cattle remains belong to the axial skeleton and 53% to the appendicular skeleton.

In Sample A1, for cattle, many skull fragments with horn cores (i.e., 40 such skull fragments) were observed, all from adult individuals. The scatter plot of these samples (Figure 5) presents the basal circumference and the flattening index (minimum diameter at base/maximum diameter at base ×100), an index that allows the distinction between the flattened and oval cross-section horn cores of bulls and the circular cross-section horn cores of cows [40]. It is also possible to distinguish between horns of the “primigenius” morphological type, which are long, massive, curved, with thick walls, and with an oval–round or almost round base section, and of the “brachyceros” type, which is shorter [41]. The grouping of metric data on the diagram illustrates the predominance of the “brachyceros”-type horn cores belonging to females (Figure 5).

The estimation of the height at the withers in cattle was possible for only three individuals, based on three metapodal bones found unfragmented. Their dimensions and morphometric indices are presented in

Table 5. Dimensions (in mm) and estimations of sex and height at withers (in mm) for Bos taurus (GL = maximum length; Bp = maximum proximal width; SD = minimum diaphysis width; Bd = maximum distal width; and f = female).

Bone	GL (1)	Bp (2)	SD (3)	Bd (4)	I2 (2 × 100/1)	I3 (3 × 100/1)	I4 (4 × 100/1)	Sex	Height at Withers
Metacarpus (Sample A1)	200	-	32	58.5	-	16	29.25	f	1200
Metacarpus (Sample A2)	211	39	25	49	18.48	11.84	23.22	f	1266
Metatarsus (Sample A2)	188.5	55	29.5	54	29.17	15.64	28.64	f	1131

. Only females were estimated with the height at the withers varying between 113 to 126 cm, which is similar to other urban settlements of Medieval Moldova [42].

Based on the total identified remains for mammals, sheep/goat had proportions of 24.26% in Sample A1 and 15.57% in Sample A2 (Table 3). For this domestic group, in Sample A1, based on 197 identified remains, a minimum of 11 individuals were estimated: eight slaughtered at mature age (over 2 years old) and three at immature age (under 2 years old). In Sample A2, based on 95 identified remains, a minimum of six individuals were estimated: five were slaughtered at a mature age (over 2 years old) and one at an immature age (under 2 years old) (Table 4).

Pig remains were present in small numbers in both samples, representing only 5.17% and 3.93% (Table 3). In Sample A1, the 42 identified fragments were from four individuals: three slaughtered at a mature age (over 2 years old) and one at an immature age (under 2 years old). In Sample A2, based on 24 identified remains, there were an estimated three individuals: two mature (over 2 years old) and one immature (under 2 years old).

The remains of horse and dog were present in small numbers, and only from mature individuals (Table 4). Horse remains comprised 0.25% of Sample A1 and 2.95% of Sample A2. In Sample 2, six fragments of horse bones with butchering marks were identified (i.e., one each of coxal and radius, and two each of femur and tibia), proving the consumption of meat from this species. The proportion of dog remains was 0.49% in each sample, without any marks of butchery.

Few remains of wild mammals were identified, with only Cervus elaphus, Sus scrofa, and Lepus europaeus documented. The presence of forest wild species (i.e., red deer, wild boar) was identified in both samples. Forest-edge and open-field species (i.e., European hare) were only identified in Sample A1.

At the 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street site, other wild species, including European badger (Meles meles) and European pond turtle, were reported in a previous publication [43]. The discovery of turtles, previously mentioned in the archaeological context, was described in more detail in the aforementioned study: the skeletal remains of ten adult turtles were found, both males and females, without any trace of anthropic intervention. The presence of the European pond turtle in the urban environment of the period is also attested in the documentary sources of the time, including some aspects related to its behavior and adjustment to habitat changes. The outcomes of the archaeozoological analysis of the skeletal remains of pond turtles complete the information concerning the dissemination history of this species, given that, at present, it is considered vulnerable and has an unfavorable conservation status due to being constantly threatened by the degradation, destruction, and fragmentation of habitats [43].

4.2. Archaeobotany

As previously mentioned, phytoliths were analyzed as plant remains.

Composition of the phytolith samples from the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site. In the samples taken from this site, over 2900 phytoliths were identified, which were categorized into 13 morphotypes (

Table 6. Phytolith data from the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT	SAMPLE CODE	Rondel	Bulliform flabellate	Spheroid	Acute bulbosus	Elongate entire	Elongate dendritic	Crenate	Polylobate	Bilobate	Blocky	Cross	Cyperaceae Type	Silica skeletons	Tracheary	Phytolith Sum
Cx2	EMI 1	203	5	4	27	54	34	3	0	7	11	0	0	0	2	350
Cx4	EMI 2	288	0	11	30	47	24	6	0	6	3	0	0	1	0	416
Cx5b	EMI 3	243	1	30	61	41	51	6	7	14	6	1	0	0	2	463
Cx5b	EMI 4	201	1	61	29	51	47	8	5	9	1	1	1	1	1	417
Cx7	EMI 5	179	1	4	26	39	8	4	1	5	0	0	0	1	1	269
Cx7	EMI 6	189	0	4	45	53	11	7	0	5	7	0	0	0	0	321
Cx10	EMI 7	175	0	5	57	56	9	6	1	10	1	0	0	0	0	320
Cx10	EMI 8	161	1	9	68	67	9	22	4	19	7	0	0	0	0	367

, Figure 6). Additionally, silica skeletons were found in three samples (i.e., EMI 2, EMI 4, and EMI 5). The phytoliths found in the samples from this site were predominantly from the Poaceae family, with the identified morphotypes indicating the presence of several subfamilies (Table 6, Figure 6). All spectra were dominated by Rondel-type phytoliths, ranging from 43.87% to 69.23%. Elongate entire morphotypes accounted for 8.86% to 18.26%, while Elongate dendritic phytoliths ranged from 2.45% to 11.27%. A significant proportion was made up of Acute bulbosus (up to 18.53%), which are produced in the vegetative parts of Poaceae taxa. Bilobate phytoliths were consistently present in these samples, with percentages ranging from 1.44% to 5.18%. All samples had preserved Crenate-type phytoliths, with one sample recording almost 6%. The Cross morphotype was identified in the two samples (EMI 3 and EMI 4). Spheroid morphotype was also found in all samples, notably reaching 14.63% in sample EMI 4. Tracheary phytoliths were modestly present in only four samples. Blocky-type phytoliths, which can be produced by monocotyledons, dicotyledons, and conifers, were present in seven out of eight samples, with percentages reaching up to 3.14%.

Composition of the phytolith samples from the 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street site. The samples collected from this site had well-preserved phytoliths, with spectra based on over 3300 microscopic silica bodies, including grass and non-grass remains (

Table 7. Phytolith data from the 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street (formerly Crişan) site.

SAMPLE CODE	Rondel	Bulliform flabellate	Spheroid	Acute bulbosus	Elongate entire	Elongate dendritic	Crenate	Polylobate	Bilobate	Blocky	Cross	Saddle	Silica skeletons	Tracheary	Phytolith Sum
CRIȘAN 1	300	1	18	13	48	57	8	4	3	7	0	2	1	0	462
CRIȘAN 2	231	1	5	20	51	50	1	0	4	3	0	0	0	0	366
CRIȘAN 3	301	4	4	18	33	41	13	3	9	5	0	0	2	4	437
CRIȘAN 4	205	4	5	17	36	34	5	0	3	6	0	1	1	0	317
CRIȘAN 5	209	7	43	23	31	61	9	0	6	21	0	1	0	0	411
CRIȘAN 6	214	8	33	39	43	50	10	0	3	35	1	1	0	1	438
CRIȘAN 7	229	6	0	47	48	119	1	19	9	48	2	0	1	0	529
CRIȘAN 8	212	7	8	40	39	61	0	0	7	29	0	0	0	0	403

, Figure 7). The spectra were homogeneous and very similar to those obtained for the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site. The Rondel morphotype clearly dominates, with percentages ranging from 43.29% to 68.88%. The percentage of Elongate entire phytoliths ranged from 7.54% to 13.93%. Elongate dendritic phytoliths were better represented than in the samples taken from the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site, with percentages ranging from 9.38% to 22.5%. The Acute bulbosus morphotype, which was present in all samples, had a maximum proportion of 9.93%. Bilobate phytoliths were less represented compared with the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site, reaching a maximum of 2.06%. Crenate phytoliths were also present in all samples from the 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street site, with their proportion reaching up to 2.97%. Saddle-type phytoliths were modestly present in half of the samples, with proportions below 1%, while at the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site, this morphotype was not identified. The Spheroid morphotype was identified in seven out of eight samples, with percentages reaching up to 10.46%. Blocky-type phytoliths were better represented compared with the 5th Mihai Eminescu Street site (up to 9.07%).

In both the 5th Mihai Eminescu and 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street sites, the phytolith spectra overwhelmingly reflect the dominance of taxa from the Poaceae family. The proportion of Rondel phytoliths indicates the overwhelming presence of the Pooideae subfamily (C3 grasses), which includes cereals such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and others. The percentages of Elongate dendritic phytoliths support the hypothesis of cereal presence at both sites, with their proportion in the samples from the 10th Architect G. M. Cantacuzino Street site indicating a more significant presence. Albert et al. [44] noted that both wild grasses and domesticated cereals produce Elongate dendritic phytoliths. However, they observed a significant distinction in the phytolith assemblages from cereals such as wheat and barley. These cereal-derived assemblages typically contain a higher proportion of Elongate dendritic phytoliths, often exceeding 7–8%. This elevated percentage serves as a marker for identifying phytoliths that originate from domesticated cereals, as opposed to those from wild grasses.

The high percentage of cereal inflorescences (Elongate dendritic phytoliths up to 22.5%) indicates that cereals played a role in the economy of these settlements, providing indirect evidence of the consumption of the cereals. It is plausible that feeding with byproduct fodder is also a factor. This suggests that the use of agricultural byproducts, such as chaff and grain remnants, as animal feed was likely practiced at these sites. Such a practice indicates a strategic utilization of available resources, where leftover materials from cereal processing were repurposed to sustain livestock, thereby reflecting an integrated approach to resource management in the agricultural systems of the time. Shahack-Gross et al. [45] investigated the implications of phytolith assemblages within agro-pastoral systems. They observed that, when the percentage of dendritic phytoliths in an assemblage surpasses 3%, it likely indicates that livestock were being fed cereal byproducts. This practice of foddering with cereal remnants reflects a strategic use of agricultural resources, where the byproducts of cereal processing are repurposed as animal feed. Dimitrie Cantemir detailed, in his work Descriptio Moldaviae (1716), the agricultural practices of Medieval Moldova, emphasizing that Triticum sp. (wheat) and Hordeum vulgare (barley) were the main crops grown for both human consumption and animal feed [46]. In addition to these staple cereals, the medieval population extensively cultivated Panicum miliaceum (Proso millet), while Avena sativa (oat) and Secale cereale (rye) were grown to a lesser extent. Historical records further indicate that Zea mays (maize) began to be cultivated around the mid-18th century, marking a significant expansion of the region’s agricultural variety [36,47]. Our results confirm that representatives of the Panicoideae subfamily (C4 grasses, e.g., Setaria sp., Panicum sp., Sorghum sp., and Zea sp.) were present at these two sites. The presence of Bilobate and Cross phytoliths in the samples also confirms this aspect.

Except for a single sample (CRIȘAN 7), all the other 15 samples also preserved Spheroid phytoliths. It is known that these are specific to woody dicotyledons. These data attest to the existence of trees and shrubs in the proximity of the sites, which were brought and utilized by medieval communities for various purposes, thus reflecting cultural and economic adaptations to the surrounding environment. Documents from that period confirm the presence of extensive orchards, underscoring the importance of fruit tree cultivation in Medieval Moldova agriculture [46]. The latter half of the 16th century also saw a notable increase in the cultivation of Vitis vinifera (common grape vine), leading to the establishment of vast vineyards across the hills of Moldova, which became a distinctive feature of the landscape. These orchards, along with the vineyards and cereal fields, illustrate a diverse and flourishing agricultural system that met the dietary needs of the population and bolstered the region’s economy.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the faunal resources of Iași city during the 18th–19th centuries were identified from two archaeological sites. The results of our analysis demonstrate that the faunal resources were varied, including mollusks, fish, birds, and mammals. Most of the analyzed remains belonged to mammals. Animal husbandry represented a very important occupation, with the livestock including cattle, sheep, goat, pig, horse, and dog. Cattle was the predominant exploited species, in terms of both the number of identified remains and the minimal number of individuals. In second place was the group of sheep/goat, followed by pig. Hunting had a reduced importance for the settlement under study, as only three wild mammal species were identified: red deer, wild boar, and hare.

The phytolith spectra from both sites indicate a significant role of cereals, with a strong presence of Poaceae family grasses. High percentages of Elongate dendritic phytoliths highlight the importance of cereals in the economy and diet of this settlement. The use of chaff and grain remnants as animal feed suggests efficient resource utilization and integrated agricultural practices. Evidence of diverse crops and strategic use of agricultural byproducts reflects a complex approach to resource management. Additionally, the presence of phytoliths reveals close interactions between humans, animals, plants, and bio-waste during the period under study, suggesting some structures were used for animal enclosures or waste disposal.

The faunal and phytolith evidence from the 18th and 19th centuries in Iași city indicates a complex and integrated approach to resource management, with animal husbandry, particularly cattle raising, playing a crucial role in the economy, complemented by diverse agricultural practices and efficient use of crop byproducts for animal feed.