The Diversity of Edible Flowers and Its Biocultural Role in Local Food System in Dali, Southwest China

Abstract

Edible flowers (EFs) form a special group of food plants that serve a pivotal role in local food systems, both in their utilitarian value and cultural significance. Dali, renowned for its rich biocultural diversity, is home to various ethnic groups with unique traditions regarding the consumption of EFs. However, systematic and comprehensive ethnobotanical studies of EFs are lacking, and their biocultural significance has not been discussed. Through ethnobotanical surveys conducted in 15 markets across Dali, 163 taxa of EFs were documented, encompassing 56 families and 108 genera. They were consumed in 16 ways and as 5 types of food. Quantitative evaluations using the Relative Occurrence Frequency (ROF) and Cultural Food Significance Index (CFSI) assessed the local importance of these flowers. Comparisons were made with another site regarding flower-eating species and methods, revealing biocultural differences. The study highlights how these flowers contribute to local dietary practices and cultural traditions. The role of EFs in sustainable food systems (SFS) is discussed, with emphasis on their economic, environmental, and social impacts. Protecting biocultural diversity means maintaining reciprocal relationships between people and edible species, which are crucial nodes in local SFS.

1. Introduction

The richness of dietary species reflects food biodiversity in diets, closely linked to the diet quality and human nutrition in a given area [1]. Of the nearly 400,000 species of vascular plants known to exist on Earth, only a few are widely cultivated and just three plants—rice, maize, and wheat—provide over 60% of the daily energy consumed by humans [2,3]. Dietary diversity remains limited, even in areas with high biodiversity [4]. The homogenization of global diets is becoming a threat to food security [5].

Edible plants are an integral part of human diets and traditional food systems [6]. The diversity of wild edible plants obtained on or near agricultural land, forests, and other natural landscapes, is a key source of resilience for food systems, especially in lean seasons and underdeveloped areas [7]. The traditional consumption of local edible plants is closely tied to the cultural interactions between plants and humans [8]. Related traditional knowledge is also crucial for food security, especially in the context of changing environmental conditions [9].

Flowers are precious resources not only for their ornamental qualities but also for their medicinal, food, and industrial uses [10]. Plants with edible flowers (EFs) are broadly defined as those in which entire flower organs or their components are considered edible [11]. As a healthy plant food, EFs are beneficial for both the human body and the environment [12]. Flower-eating is a common practice shared by people around the world, with 180 species consumed in all kinds of food and drinks [13]. However, the species, motivations, and methods of flower consumption vary across regional and cultural contexts [14]. Flower-eating plays an important role in different regional cultures and contributes significantly to local food systems, human diets, and physical health. In Mizoram, Northeast India, 59 EFs consumed by indigenous people diversify the food sources and stabilize local food security during challenging times [15]. In Mediterranean basin countries, 251 taxa of EFs are widely used for human nutrition and closely linked to both local floras and traditional knowledge [16]. For hundreds of years of tradition, Mexicans have regarded cooking and eating flowers and plants, alongside the consumption of other animals, as a sacred ritual, creating an inseparable bond between flowers and local cuisine [17].

Yunnan Province in southwest China is known for its rich biodiversity and cultural diversity. There are more than 300 EF species consumed by different linguistic groups according to a preliminary ethnobotanical survey [18]. An old saying, ‘flowers bloom in all seasons in Yunnan’, is widely known. Studies have shown that edible flowers are available throughout the year in Yunnan, with spring and summer offering the greatest abundance [19]. The traditional knowledge regarding EFs varies considerably across different linguistic groups. The methods of consuming EFs traditionally also differ across these groups [14]. The Bai people, residing in Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture in the central-western part of Yunnan, are one of the ethnic minorities in China with a long history and rich culture. Relying on abundant local plant resources, combined with their traditional dietary habits, the Bai people have, through long-term practice, identified and utilized numerous edible plants in all aspects of production, daily life, and diet. This has led to the development of a local food system and dietary culture that is distinctive among all of China’s ethnic groups [20].

Edible flowers are a special group of food plants that serve a pivotal role in local food systems, both for their utilitarian value and their cultural significance [11]. Previous studies on flower-eating in Dali Prefecture have documented some traditional knowledge of several species [21]. However, a detailed study on the diversity of EFs in Dali has not been conducted. The number of EF species traditionally consumed by the Dali people remains unclear. Flower-eating is a widespread and significant social phenomenon in Dali. The cultural significance of EFs and their role in the local food system merit further consideration. The main objectives of this study were to (1) document the diversity of EFs consumed in Dali, (2) reveal the flower-eating culture there, and (3) discuss its role in the local sustainable food system.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Sites

Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture is located in the central-western part of Yunnan Province, between 98°52′–101°03′ E and 24°41′–26°42′ N. It covers 29,459 square kilometers, with mountainous regions accounting for 93.4% of the area. Dali is situated on a low-latitude plateau with an annual average temperature ranging from 12 °C to 19 °C and an average annual precipitation of 836 mm. The region experiences minimal seasonal variation. The terrain is complex, with many lakes and basins. Elevation ranges from 730 m to 4295 m, resulting in significant vertical climatic differences. The area is rich in biodiversity and diverse vegetation types (www.dali.gov.cn, accessed on 17 August 2024).

Dali Prefecture is under the jurisdiction of one city, 11 counties, and 112 towns. Currently, it has a permanent population of approximately 3.34 million, comprising 13 ethnic groups: Han, Bai, Yi, Hui, Lisu, Miao, Naxi, Zhuang, Zang, Bulang, Lahu, Achang, and Dai. Historically, Dali has been well-known for its rich diversity of useful plants and cultural practices surrounding their use by these ethnic groups. For example, there has been a long tradition of the collection, cultivation, utilization, and trade of medicinal plants by the local villagers [22]. Dali Prefecture is both the origin and primary settlement of the Bai people with a population of 1.93 million. Approximately 80% of China’s Bai population resides here. Their adherence to animism and embrace of a sustainable approach to utilizing diverse plant species has fostered a distinctive biocultural heritage, including traditional practices such as meizi (plum) consumption and plant-dyeing techniques [23,24].

2.2. Ethnobotanical Survey

The field ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in Dali during six visits from April 2019 to March 2024. The local market served as the gateway to the local food system, housing the largest concentration of EFs and related traditional knowledge from both vendors and consumers [25,26]. Four periodic markets and 11 stable markets in Dali City and 11 other counties were covered in our study (Figure 1 and

Table 1. The location, linguistic groups, and number of informants in the markets were investigated.

Name	Abbreviation	Types	Subordinate County or City	Linguistic Group *	Number of Informants
Taixing market	TX	stable	Dali City	Multiple groups	34
Xinqiao market	XQ	stable	Dali City	Multiple groups	15
Gucheng market	GC	stable	Dali City	Multiple groups	19
Xizhou market	XZ	periodic	Dali City	Multiple groups	11
Yuhu market	YH1	stable	Eryuan County	Multiple groups	10
Cangshanxizhen market	CX	stable	Yangbi County	Mainly Yi	11
Yunhe market	YH2	stable	Heqing County	Multiple groups	20
Chengbei market	CB1	stable	Jianchuan County	Mainly Bai	8
Chengbei market	CB2	stable	Binchuan County	Multiple groups	5
Chengnan market	CN	stable	Weishan County	Mainly Yi and Hui	10
Nanjian Zonghe market	NZ	stable	Nanjian County	Mainly Han and Yi	15
Baohua market	BH	periodic	Nanjian County	Mainly Han and Yi	13
Wenbi market	WB	stable	Midu County	Multiple groups	14
Xiangyun market	XY	stable	Xiangyun County	Multiple groups	16
Yongping Zonghe market	YZ	stable	Yongping County	Mainly Han and Yi	15
Caojian market	CJ	periodic	Yunlong County	Mainly Bai	26
Miaowei market	MW	periodic	Yunlong County	Mainly Lisu	16
Kaifaqu market	KF	stable	Yunlong County	Mainly Bai	19

* “Multiple groups” in this column indicates that there are various linguistic groups, with Bai and Han as the dominant groups.

). Stable markets are typically located in easily accessible areas and offer the common vegetables and foods consumed by the locals, with regulated operations. Vendors are generally the same each day, and locals can visit at their convenience. Periodic markets are often held at regular intervals, such as every Monday or on dates containing “3”, in remote areas like the outskirts of towns or rural areas. With minimal regulation and open access for anyone to set up a stall, rare EFs, and uncommon species are more likely to be found in these markets.

The semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, and participatory observation were conducted concerning the topics listed in

Table 2. Questions used for market interviews.

No.	Questions/Topics
1	What flowers have you consumed?
2	What is the local name of the flower? How to pronounce it in your ethnic language?
3	Where do you collect the flowers?
4	Do you consume them regularly or only during festivals and special occasions?
5	How do you consume them?
6	What do they taste like? Are they delicious? Do you like consuming them?
7	What are the health benefits of consuming these flowers? Do they have any medicinal function?
8	What else are these flowers/plants used for?

. The number of informants was also recorded (Table 1). Some restaurants serving flower dishes in Dali were also investigated to add some information and provide additional insights. All interviews were made individually. Before the interviews, each informant was informed of the purpose of this study, and their consent was obtained.

During the market surveys or en route to survey sites, voucher specimens of some EFs were collected and assigned numbers. The voucher numbers were included in the inventory of EFs in Dali. The nomenclature of all vascular plants follows iplant (http://www.iplant.cn/, accessed on 18–22 August 2024) and World Flora Online (http://www.worldfloraonline.org, accessed on 18–25 August 2024). Prof. Chunlin Long identified the plant species, and the voucher specimens were deposited in the herbarium at Minzu University of China, Beijing.

2.3. Data Statistics and Quantitative Evaluation

2.3.1. Data Statistics

The information gathered from field surveys on Dali’s EFs and associated traditional knowledge was systematically reviewed, recorded, and organized, including species’ scientific names, vernacular names, growth types, edible parts of the floral organs, use types, pre-process and preparation methods, other parts when collecting or consuming flowers, medicinal value, and additional uses of the species. The edible parts of the floral organs were classified according to the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard [27]. The term “nectar” was added, as the nectar of some EFs can be consumed as a snack based on observations during the field survey in Dali. Since knowledge is usually lost when field material is converted into data matrices [28], we retained some detailed and non-standardized information in the columns “Edible parts of the floral organ”, “Methods of preparation for food” and “Additional use(s)” in the inventory. These data were manually categorized before being subjected to statistical analysis.

2.3.2. Quantitative Evaluation

ROF

The relative occurrence frequency index (ROF) in this study was used to evaluate the local importance of EFs in Dali.

ROF =OF/N

(1)

OF refers to the number of markets where the EF occurs while N is the number of markets surveyed. The index varies from 0 to 1. A higher ROF value means the EF is more widespread in local markets, reflecting greater importance in the local food system [29].

CFSI

The cultural food significance index (CFSI) was used to evaluate the cultural significance of EFs in Dali. Because the number of surveyed markets is counted and applied to the evaluation, the original index QI (frequency of quotation index) was replaced by OI (frequency of occurrence index) for a more accurate evaluation. The OI value is equal to the OF value. Edible flowers are a specific type of edible plant where the flower is the primary part used. There are many EFs whose other parts may also be consumed together with the flower. However, such uses do not enhance the cultural significance of the species as an EF [11]. Therefore, the PUI (parts used index) value is not calculated. The formula for calculating CFSI in this study is as follows:

CFSI = OI × AI × FUI × MFFI × TSAI × FMRI × 10⁻²

(2)

The CFSI includes the occurrence frequency (OI), the availability (AI, availability index), the frequency of use (FUI, frequency of utilization index), the type of food uses (MFFI, multifunctional food use index), taste appreciation (TSAI, taste score appreciation index) and the role as food medicine (FMRI, food-medicinal role index) [29,30,31]. AI correction index is also used to correct for the effects of ecological factors on the cultural significance of EFs [30]. The categories of each index are simplified (

Table 3. The categories of each index.

Index	Classification	Value
AI	Very common	4.0
	Common	3.0
	Middle	2.0
	Rare	1.0
AI correction index	Ubiquity	0
	Localized	−0.5
	Very localized	−1.0
FUI	More than once per week	5.0
	Once per week	4.0
	Once per month	3.0
	More than once per year but less than once per month	2.0
	Once per year	1.0
	Unused during the past 30 years	0.5
MFFI	Eaten raw	0.5
	As cold dish	1.5
	Stir-fried/Fried	1.0
	Cooked in water	1.0
	Cooked with other food	1.0
	Stewed/ Roasted/Steamed	1.0
	Pickled/Making cakes/Coloring something	1.0
	As tea substitute/Scenting tea	1.0
	Brewed/Infused in alcohol	1.0
TSAI	Best	10.0
	Very good	9.0
	Good	7.5
	Fair	6.5
	Poor	5.5
	Terrible	4.0
FMRI	Food is a medicine	5.0
	Food is quite a medicine with clear specifications of the treated affections	4.0
	Food is very healthy	3.0
	Food is healthy without specification of a particular therapeutic action	2.0
	Not recognized	1.0

). The ROF and CFSI values for each EF are added to the database.

JI

The Jaccard index (JI) was used to evaluate similarities between the EFs of Dali with those of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture. Xishuangbanna has been previously studied for the same purpose, using similar methods to examine the EFs of the region. Both Dali and Xishuangbanna are located in Yunnan Province and are known for their rich flora. However, their main ethnic groups are different, one is Dai and the other is Bai. In recent years, transportation conditions have significantly improved. Frequent trade and cultural exchanges occur between the two prefectures. Through evaluation and comparison, the prevalence and differences in flower-eating culture in Yunnan can be revealed. The reasons behind the formation of these unique flower-eating cultures can be speculated.

$$\mathrm{JI}={\displaystyle \frac{C}{A+B-C}}\times 100$$

(3)

A is the recorded number of species of the current study area a, B is the documented number of species of another study area b, and C is the number of species common to both areas a and b [32].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Species Diversity of Edible Flowers

According to our field surveys, 163 taxa (including species and varieties) belong to 56 families, and 108 genera were documented as being used as EFs in Dali. Their scientific names, families, vernacular names, Chinese names, types, used parts, food categories, methods of preparation, additional uses, ROF values, CFSI values, and voucher numbers are listed in

Table 4. The inventory of edible flowers consumed by people in Dali.

No.	Species	Family	Vernacular Name	Chinese Name	Type	Edible Parts of the Floral Organ	With Other Parts When Consuming Flowers	Categories of Use Type	Methods of Preparation for Food	Additional Use(s)	ROF	CFSI	Voucher Number
1	Agastache rugosa (Fisch. et Mey.) O. Ktze.	Lamiaceae		藿香	c	flower buds	stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup		0.73	11.88	DL015
2	Albizia julibrissin Durazz.	Fabaceae	xi hei xin (YN)	合欢	w, c	flowers, flower buds		v	stir-fried	Flowers are used for resolving stagnation for tranquilization. Bark is used for resolving stagnation for tranquilization, promoting blood circulation and detumescence.	0.13	0.16
3	Allium chinense G. Don	Amaryllidaceae	xie tai hua (YN)	藠头	c	inflorescence	leaves	v	stir-fried; pickled	Common vegetable and also for medicinal purposes; invigorating the stomach.	0.20	1.35	DL021
4	Allium fistulosum L.	Amaryllidaceae		葱	c	inflorescence	leaves	v, se	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish; pickled; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Flowers for dispelling cold. Common vegetable, seasoning, and also for medicinal purposes; inducing resuscitation.	0.60	46.80	DL033
5	Allium hookeri Thwaites	Amaryllidaceae	luo wo mo (YI); pie cai (YN)	宽叶韭	w	inflorescence		v	stir-fried with pork or eggs; cooked in water for soup; pickled	Common vegetable. For dispelling blood stasis and promoting blood circulation, promoting qi circulation, and promoting stagnation.	1.00	194.40	DL066
6	Allium prattii C. H. Wright ex Hemsl.	Amaryllidaceae	ye jiu cai (YN)	太白山葱	w	inflorescence	young leaves	v	stir-fried; pickled	For dispelling cold and invigorating stomach.	0.13	2.16
7	Allium sativum L.	Amaryllidaceae	dun bie (YI)	蒜	c	inflorescence		v, se	stir-fried; pickled; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Common vegetable, seasoning, and also for medicinal purposes; bulbs for anti-inflammation and rheumatism.	1.00	129.60	DL010
8	Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Sprengle	Amaryllidaceae	dong bu lai (YI)	韭	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish; pickled as sauce; as fillings	Flowers for diminishing inflammation, arresting cough, expelling phlegm, and nourishing liver and kidney. Common vegetable, seasoning, and also for medicinal purposes; diminishing inflammation, relieving cough, expelling phlegm, and nourishing liver and kidney.	0.87	249.60	DL003
9	Amaranthus caudatus L.	Amaranthaceae		尾穗苋	c, e	young peduncles	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Common vegetable.	0.27	1.04
10	Amaranthus cruentus L.	Amaranthaceae	tian xue mi (YN)	老鸦谷	w, c	inflorescence	always young shoots and tender leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish	Flowers for clearing heat toxins. Wild leafy vegetable. Seeds are edible after brewing.	0.20	10.92	DL043
11	Amaranthus hypochondriacus L.	Amaranthaceae	zi li xian (YN)	千穗谷	c	flowers	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant plants; seeds used as food substitute or fodder.	0.20	0.78
12	Amaranthus tricolor L.	Amaranthaceae	hong yu mi cai (YN)	苋	c	inflorescence	always young shoots and tender leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish	Common leafy vegetable. Improving eyesight.	0.67	70.88
13	Apium graveolens L.	Apiaceae	chuan qin (YN)	旱芹	c	inflorescence	always young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; as cold dish after blanching; pickled	Wild leafy vegetable. Whole plant for medicine to clear heat toxins, cool blood, and lower blood pressure; Antihypertension.	0.53	25.20	DL204
14	Aster indicus L.	Asteraceae		马兰	w	flowers	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Greening plant for Ornamental plant; young stems and leaves for vegetable	0.60	2.34
15	Astragalus sinicus L.	Fabaceae	hong hua cai (YN)	紫云英	c	flowers	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	The whole plant is used as green manure; the young stems and leaves are used as vegetables; for treating poison and sore throat	0.33	4.95
16	Basella alba L.	Basellaceae		落葵	c, e	flowers	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Bulbel for medicinal purposes	0.73	26.40	DL006
17	Begonia cucullata Willd.	Begoniaceae	hai tang hua (YN)	四季海棠	c	flowers	sometimes leaves	v	stir-fried with other food; as a cold dish	Flowers for hemostasis and removing blood stasis. Ornamental plant	0.13	5.20
18	Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.	Cucurbitaceae		冬瓜	c	flowers		v	stir-fried	Fruit is a common vegetable. The decoction of fruit for fever, cold, menstrual disorder, and diuresis. Seeds and melon skin for medicine.	0.13	0.66	DL350
19	Berberis pruinosa Franch.	Berberidaceae	san ke zhen (YN)	粉叶小檗	w	inflorescence		v	stir-fried	Roots and branches for clearing heat toxins and diminishing inflammation.	0.07	0.12
20	Bombax ceiba L.	Malvaceae	pan zhi hua (YN)	木棉	w, c	corollas, stamens, occasionally flowers		v, b	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish after blanching; as tea substitute; stewed	Whole plant for medicine to clear heat toxins, and promote diuresis and hemostasis. Seed fibers for beddings.	0.13	9.90	DL053
21	Brassica campestris var. purpuraria L.H. Bariley	Brassicaceae	hong cai hua (YN)	紫菜薹	c(imported)	inflorescence	sometimes stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Leafy vegetable.	0.47	4.20
22	Brassica juncea (L.) Czernajew	Brassicaceae	chong cai, ku cai (YN)	芥菜	c	inflorescence	always young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; pickled	Common leafy vegetable. Seeds for suppressing hyperactive liver and hemostasis.	0.87	140.40	DL026
23	Brassica oleracea L.	Brassicaceae	gai lan (YN)	野甘蓝	c	inflorescence	always stems and leaves	v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as tea substitute	Many cultivators are common leafy vegetables and famous oil-bearing crops. Also used as medicine for detoxifying and expelling wind, and relieving summer heat	0.93	189.00
24	Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.	Brassicaceae	cai hua (YN)	花椰菜	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; pickled	Common vegetable	1.00	67.50	DL011
25	Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck	Brassicaceae	qing hua cai (YN)	西蓝花	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Common vegetable	1.00	45.00	DL040
26	Brassica rapa var. chinensis (L.) Kitamura	Brassicaceae	jian gan bai, cai tai (YN)	青菜	c	peduncles	always young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; pickled	Common leafy vegetable. Also used for expectorant and tourniquet relieving, detoxifying, and swelling-reducing	1.00	162.00	DL028
27	Brassica rapa var. glabra Regel	Brassicaceae		白菜	c	inflorescence	always young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; pickled	Common vegetable	1.00	67.50
28	Brassica rapa var. oleifera de Candolle	Brassicaceae	you cai hua (YN)	芸薹	c	inflorescence	always stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; pickled; fried	Many cultivators are common leafy vegetables and famous oil-bearing crops. Also used as medicine for cooling blood, dispersing blood, detoxifying, and reducing swelling	0.87	140.40	DL047
29	Buddleja officinalis Maxim.	Scrophulariaceae	ba ba hua (YN)	密蒙花	w	inflorescence, nectar		b, fd, sn	coloring rice; as tea substitute; (nectar) eaten raw	Common edible flower. Flowers for extracting perfume oils. Clearing heat and promoting diuresis; improving eyesight	0.20	9.00	DL123
30	Calystegia hederacea Wall.	Convolvulaceae	lao mu zhu cao (YN)	打碗花	w	flowers		v	stir-fried	Roots for irregular menstruation	0.07	0.12	DL092
31	Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br.	Convolvulaceae	da po wan hua (YN)	旋花	w	flowers		v	stir-fried		0.07	0.04
32	Camellia pitardii Coh. St.	Theaceae	ye shan cha (YN)	西南红山茶	w	flowers		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as tea substitute	Clearing heat toxins. Ornamental plant.	0.07	0.96
33	Camellia reticulata Lindl.	Theaceae	hong hua you cha (YN)	滇山茶	c	flowers		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as tea substitute; fried	Clearing heat toxins, detumescence, and cooling blood for hemostasis. Ornamental plant. Seed oil is edible and medicinal.	0.13	9.60	DL263
34	Camellia sinensis var. assamica (J. W. Masters) Kitamura	Theaceae		普洱茶	c	flowers	young leaves	b	as tea substitute; cooked in water for congee; brewed	Clearing heat toxins and cooling blood for hemostasis. Famous tea. Young leaves and stems can be cooked. Leaves for medicine. Cultural plant.	0.07	8.10	DL054
35	Campsis grandiflora (Thunb.) Schum.	Bignoniaceae	zi wei hua, duo tai hua (YN)	凌霄	c	flowers		v, b	cooked in water for soup; infused with alcohol	Brewed or decocted for activating qi-flowing, removing obstruction in collaterals, cooling blood, and dispelling pathogenic wind; Ornamental plant.	0.13	1.92
36	Canna indica L.	Cannaceae	ba jiao yu (YN)	芭蕉芋	c	nectar		sn	eaten raw as a sweetener	Many horticultural cultivars for ornamental. Canna indica ‘Edulis’ is a common forage crop and for extracting starch as well	0.07	0.17	DL130
37	Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.	Brassicaceae	ge (NX)	荠	w, c	flowers	always leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water; as cold dish	Wild vegetable. Used as medicine for treating dysentery, gonorrhea, edema, chyluria, hematemesis, bloody stools, blood avalanche, excessive menstruation, and eye pain	0.67	94.50
38	Caragana sinica (Buc’hoz) Rehd.	Fabaceae	jin que hua (YN); ha wu ren ba (NX)	锦鸡儿	w	flower buds		v	stir-fried or steamed with eggs; stewed with pork; cooked in water for congee or soup	Flowers for clearing heat and freeing strangury, nourishing kidney yin, dispelling pathogenic wind, promoting blood circulation, relieving rigidity of muscles, and activating collaterals. Roots for medicinal purposes.	0.67	129.60	DL115
39	Carthamus tinctorius L.	Asteraceae		红花	c	flowers		b	as tea substitute	Promoting blood circulation for removing obstruction in collaterals, removing blood stasis, and relieving pain; cloth dyeing	0.07	1.30
40	Celosia argentea L.	Amaranthaceae	hong niu xi (YN)	青葙	c	flowers, flower buds		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for congee or soup; as tea substitute; stewed	Flowers for promoting blood circulation. Young stems, leaves, and seeds for food. Whole plant for eliminating dampness, clearing heat, destroying parasites, and hemostasis. Roots for promoting blood circulation. Ornamental plant	0.13	3.52	DL183
41	Celosia cristata L.	Amaranthaceae		鸡冠花	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried with pork; cooked in water; stewed with pork	Flowers are used for treating functional uterine bleeding and angina pectoris. Cooling blood for hemostasis and nourishing blood. Ornamental plant.	0.20	14.04	DL221
42	Cercis chinensis Bunge	Fabaceae	luo guang sang (YN)	紫荆	c	flowers		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried; cooked in water; as a cold dish	The bark is used to cure poisons. Ornamental plant.	0.07	3.47
43	Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.	Asteraceae		菊花	c	flowers		v, b, sn	stir-fried; cooked in water; as cold dish; steamed; fried; stewed with eggs; as tea substitute; making cakes or bread	Clearing heat-fire, suppressing hyperactive liver, and improving eyesight. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.87	636.48	DL029
44	Clerodendrum lindleyi Decne. ex Planch.	Lamiaceae		尖齿臭茉莉	w	flowers, nectar	young leaves	v, sn	stir-fried; (nectar) eaten raw	For medicinal purposes.	0.07	2.70
45	Colocasia antiquorum Schott	Araceae	mi tuo ho wei (BA)	野芋	w	flowers, spathes		v	stir-fried	Root tuber is used externally to treat unidentified swelling and toxins.	0.20	0.99
46	Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.	Araceae	mi tuo huo wei (BA)	芋	c	peduncles, spathes, flowers, spadices		v	after removing the spadices and the peel of peduncles, stir-fried, stewed, steamed with eggplants, and pickled; fried spadices stir-fried or stewed with pork and peppers	Common food crop. Leaves and corm are edible. Leaves can be used as fodder. Cultural plant.	1.00	108.00	DL035
47	Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore	Asteraceae	ge ming cai (YN)	野茼蒿	w	flowers	young leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water; fried; as a cold dish after blanching in hot water	Whole plants for clearing heat arresting cough and strengthening the stomach	0.80	145.80	DL142
48	Crocus sativus L.	Iridaceae	zang hong hua (YN)	番红花	c	flowers		v, b, sn	cooked in water for congee; making cakes; as tea substitute; stewed with sea cucumber; infused in alcohol	Flowers for cooling blood to clear toxins. Precious Chinese medicine.	0.07	0.69
49	Cucurbita moschata (Duch. ex Lam.) Duch. ex Poiret	Cucurbitaceae		南瓜	c	peduncles, mostly male flowers, occasionally female flowers		v	removing the peel of peduncle, receptacles, and pistils, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; fried	Flowers for clearing heat and promoting diuresis, detumescence, eliminating blood stasis, and anti-cancer. Young stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit are edible. Seeds for snacks. Cultural plant.	1.00	324.00	DL056
50	Cymbidium goeringii (Rchb. f.) Rchb. F.	Orchidaceae	lan cao (YN)	春兰	c	flowers		v, b	stir-fried; as tea substitute; cooked with other food; stewed after mashed	Flowers for strengthening stomach, sweating, and diuretic. Treating pulmonary tuberculosis with hemoptysis, chronic cough, chest tightness, dizziness, lower back pain, and urinary tract infections; Using flower-infused oil to comb the hair can make it dark and shiny. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.07	0.88
51	Cynara scolymus L.	Asteraceae	yang ji (YN)	菜蓟	c	receptacles		v	after boiling in hot water, as a cold dish or stir-fried	Assisting treatment of cardiovascular diseases	0.07	0.56	DL286
52	Cynoglossum amabile Stapf et Drumm.	Boraginaceae		倒提壶	w	inflorescence	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	As medicine	0.13	0.50	DL002
53	Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	Orchidaceae		石斛	c	flowers		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water; as tea substitute; stewed with pork; steamed with eggs	Flowers for moistening lung invigorating and benefiting Qi. Stems for antidote. Promoting stomach intestine motility. Ornamental plant	0.40	81.00	DL105
54	Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo	Orchidaceae		铁皮石斛	w, c	flowers		v, b	stir-fried with eggs; cooked in water; as tea substitute; steamed with eggs	Stem used as medicine for a long history to treat many ailments and improve immunity	0.60	72.90	DL042
55	Dianthus superbus L.	Caryophyllaceae	shi zhu zi hua (YN)	瞿麦	w	flowers	young shoots	v	cooked in water for soup	Clearing heat and diuresis.	0.07	0.12
56	Dregea sinensis Hemsl.	Apocynaceae	ga ga be (NX); nai jiang hua, gu gong hua (YN)	苦绳	w, c(imported)	inflorescence	sometimes a few young leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water; fried with pork or ham	Flowers for promoting lactation, relieving cough, dispelling pathogenic wind, and removing dampness. The whole plant is used for dispelling wind and dampness, relieving cough and asthma, relieving inflammation and lactation, reducing swelling and pain, and diuresis.	0.53	64.80	DL188
57	Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solme	Pontederiaceae	shui hu lu (YN)	凤眼莲	e	inflorescence	young stems	v	stir-fried; as cold dish after blanching in hot water	Flowers for nourishing intestine for relaxing bowels. Whole plant as fodder for pigs or medicine.	0.53	8.80
58	Elsholtzia bodinieri Vaniot	Lamiaceae	xiang su cha (YN)	东紫苏	w	inflorescence	leaves	b	as tea substitute	Clearing heat toxins	0.13	2.08	DL201
59	Epiphyllum oxypetalum (DC.) Haw.	Cactaceae		昙花	c	flowers, occasionally only corollas		v	stewed with eggs or pork	Clearing lung heat for arresting cough, cooling blood for hemostasis, and tranquilizing by nourishing the heart. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.13	0.22	DL293
60	Erigeron breviscapus (Vant.) Hand.-Mazz.	Asteraceae	deng zhan hua (YN); ba wei, dong ba wei, shi weng bo chi (YI)	短葶飞蓬	w, c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried	The whole plant is used for treating infantile malnutrition and toothache.	0.40	2.16
61	Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa (Miller) Thellung	Brassicaceae		芝麻菜	c	flowers	stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup		0.33	1.50
62	Fagopyrum esculentum Moench	Polygonaceae		荞麦	c	inflorescence	always young leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Seeds and leaves for food. Roots and stems for medicine.	0.67	10.40
63	Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.	Polygonaceae		苦荞	c	inflorescence	always young leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Seeds and leaves for food. Roots and stems for medicine.	0.60	7.92	DL249
64	Ficus tikoua Bur.	Moraceae	di shi liu (YN)	地果	w	inflorescence(hypanthium)	young fruits	v, sn	eaten raw	Ground cover plants	0.67	2.60
65	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Apiaceae		茴香	c	inflorescence	always leaves	v, se	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Flowers for relieving pains, expelling phlegm, anti-inflammatory and diuresis. The powder of leaves and roots for epilepsy and dyspepsia.	0.93	151.20	DL088
66	Gardenia jasminoides Ellis	Rubiaceae	zhi zi hua (YN)	栀子	w, c	corollas		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as tea substitute	Ornamental plant. Aromatic and dye crop. Used as a medicine for treating jaundice, gonorrhea syndrome, and other diseases	0.40	19.44	DL147
67	Hedychium flavum Roxb.	Zingiberaceae		黄姜花	c	flowers		v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant. As medicine	0.40	5.40
68	Helianthus annuus L.	Asteraceae		向日葵	c	corollas		v	stir-fried with pork belly	Flowers as medicine. Seeds are used to make vegetable oil. Whole plant for medicine and ornamental.	0.33	0.90	DL175
69	Hemerocallis citrina Baroni	Asphodelaceae	jin zhen cai (YN)	黄花菜	c, e	flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; fried	Flowers for clearing heat and cooling blood, invigorating stomach and detumescence. Ornamental plant. Whole plants are used for nourishing, cooling blood, calming the mind and improving eyesight, brain strengthening, and anti-aging	0.87	126.36	DL059
70	Hemerocallis forrestii Diels	Asphodelaceae	huang hua huo pe (NX)	西南萱草	c	flowers		v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.67	2.25
71	Hemerocallis fulva var. aurantiaca (Baker) M. Hotta	Asphodelaceae	jin zhen cai, huang hua cai (YN)	常绿萱草	c, e	flowers		v	stir-fried after steamed sometimes	Ornamental plant.	0.20	0.45
72	Hibiscus mutabilis L.	Malvaceae	fu rong hua (YN)	木芙蓉	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v	cooked in water for congee	Flowers for clearing lung heat and cooling blood. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.13	1.20
73	Hibiscus sabdariffa L.	Malvaceae		玫瑰茄	c	calyces		b, fd, sn	coloring beverages, jams, yogurts, etc.; as tea substitute; pickled	Decoction of flower for cough and low blood pressure. The whole plant is edible and used as medicine for clearing heat toxins, lubricating the intestines, and relieving the cough. The fibers of the stem bark can be used as a substitute for hemp.	0.80	116.64	DL124
74	Hibiscus syriacus L.	Malvaceae	mu fu rong (YN)	木槿	c	corollas		v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.53	2.16
75	Hibiscus syriacus f. amplissimus Gagnep.f.	Malvaceae		重瓣木槿	c	corollas		v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.13	0.30
76	Houpoea officinalis (Rehder and E. H. Wilson) N. H. Xia and C. Y. Wu	Magnoliaceae	pa zei (YI); tiao geng hua (YN)	厚朴	c	flower buds		v, b	cooked in water for congee or soup; as a tea substitute	Flowers for treating ailments of spleen and stomach, and inappetence.	0.33	3.25	DL381
77	Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.	Gramineae	gang (YI)	白茅	w	inflorescence		v, b	cooked with other food as a flavoring; as a tea substitute	Flowers for treating gastric bleeding and nephritis	0.67	96.00	DL116
78	Jasminum grandiflorum L.	Oleaceae		素馨花	w, c	flowers		b	as tea substitute; infused with alcohol	Ornamental plant. As medicine and spice.	0.33	9.00
79	Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton	Oleaceae	no qi ba (NX)	茉莉花	c	flowers		v, b, sn	scenting tea; stir-fried; make cakes; as tea substitute	Flowers for clearing heat toxins. Leaves and roots for analgesic, soothing, antibacterial, detoxifying, and detumescent.	0.67	129.60	DL139
80	Juglans regia L.	Juglandaceae	san mai zai (YI); he tao (YN)	胡桃	c(imported)	male inflorescence		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried with pork or others	Walnut is a famous nut. Kernel and bark are used as medicine. Timber for sculpture	0.53	6.24
81	Juglans sigillata Dode	Juglandaceae		泡核桃	c	male inflorescence		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried	A famous nut.	0.13	0.52
82	Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet	Fabaceae	e mei dou hua (YN)	扁豆	c	flowers		v	fried; steamed; cooked in water for soup	Flowers for relieving summer heat and removing dampness to regulate the stomach. Young fruit pods and seeds are edible.	0.20	5.94	DL203
83	Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.	Cucurbitaceae		葫芦	c	flowers		v	fried; steamed; cooked in water for soup	Fruit is a common vegetable. Anti-inflammatory and resolving static blood. Cultural plant.	0.67	23.40	DL336
84	Lepidium apetalum Willd.	Brassicaceae	la la cai (YN)	独行菜	w	inflorescence		v		Flowers for clearing heat and stopping bleeding. Whole plant as medicine.	0.53	5.12
85	Lilium taliense Franch.	Liliaceae	ye bai he (YN)	大理百合	w	flowers		v		Ornamental plant. Bulbs are edible.	0.07	0.55
86	Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.	Lauraceae	mu jiang zi (YN)	山鸡椒	w, c	flowers, flower buds		se	cooked with other food as a flavoring	Young fruit is a common seasoning. Flower, leaf, and fruit peel for perfume oil. Whole plant for dispelling pathogenic wind and cold and regulating qi-flowing for relieving pain	0.67	36.00	DL187
87	Lonicera acuminata Wall.	Caprifoliaceae	jin yin hua (YN)	淡红忍冬	w	flowers		v, b	cooked in water for congee; as tea substitute; cooked with other food	Flowers for clearing heat and diminishing inflammation.	0.07	0.30
88	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	Caprifoliaceae	jin yin hua (YN)	忍冬	c	flowers		v, b	cooked in water for congee; as tea substitute; cooked with other food	Flowers for clearing heat toxins. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.80	89.10	DL125
89	Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim.	Caprifoliaceae	jin yin mu (YN)	金银忍冬	c	flowers		b	as tea substitute	Flowers for clearing heat and diminishing inflammation. Ornamental plant	0.20	0.60
90	Lonicera similis Hemsl.	Caprifoliaceae	shan jin yin hua (YN)	细毡毛忍冬	w	flowers		b	as tea substitute	Flowers for clearing heat and diminishing inflammation.	0.07	0.20
91	Luffa aegyptiaca Miller	Cucurbitaceae		丝瓜	c	male flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked in water; stewed	Flowers boiled with eggs to relieve the dizziness. Decoction for throat pain and rhinitis. Fruit is a common vegetable. Whole plant for medicine.	0.67	36.00	DL127
92	Melastoma malabathricum L.	Melastomataceae		印度野牡丹	w	flowers		v, sn	cooked in water; eaten raw	Ornamental plant	0.07	0.10
93	Momordica charantia L.	Cucurbitaceae		苦瓜	c	flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Fruit is a common vegetable. Whole plant for clearing heat toxin. Fruit for treating diabetes.	0.13	0.72	DL103
94	Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. F.) Presl ex Kunth	Pontederiaceae		鸭舌草	w	flowers	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Flowers for clearing heat toxins and diuresis.	0.40	18.72	DL176
95	Morus alba L.	Moraceae	ma sang hua (YN)	桑	c	male inflorescence		v	stir-fried; fried with eggs; brewed	Flowers for clearing lung heat, relieving rheumatism, and nourishing the liver and kidneys.	0.73	158.40	DL118
96	Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl.	Fabaceae	lao gua hua (YN)	油麻藤	w, c	corollas		v	after blanching in hot water and soaking, stir-fried, or cooked in water for soup	Vines as medicine. Ornamental plant	0.07	1.04
97	Musa acuminata Colla	Musaceae	ye ba jiao hua (YN)	小果野蕉	w	inflorescence, bracts, corollas		v	after blanching in hot water and rubbing and rinsing with salt to remove bitterness, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; roasted; steamed; fried	Fruits and pseudo stems for food or fodder. For bronchitis and dysentery. Moistening lung for removing phlegm, calming liver wind, warming lung for relieving cough, dispersing blood stasis, and clearing menstruation.	0.27	24.00	DL004
98	Musella lasiocarpa (Franch.) C. Y. Wu ex H. W. Li	Musaceae	nga dou (YI); di lian hua; qian ban lian hua (YN)	地涌金莲	c	inflorescence		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish; stewed with pork heart; pickled	Flowers and bracts are applied externally to stop bleeding and reduce inflammation. Boiled inflorescences for intestinal infections, constipation, and genopathy. Flowers as pig feed. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.40	89.10	DL179
99	Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.	Nelumbonaceae		莲	c	corollas		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; fried; cooked with other food	Flowers for clearing heat toxins, eliminating dampness, and promoting blood circulation and hemostasis. Rhizome, seeds, and leaves are food and medicine. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.67	48.00	DL119
100	Nepeta cataria L.	Lamiaceae	me u ma, mei ya mang (YI); jing gai (YN)	荆芥	c(imported)	flowers	always tender stems and leaves	v, se	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Whole plants are used for treating colds, headaches, measles, rubella, and early sores	0.53	86.40	DL169
101	Nopalxochia ackermannii BR. et Rose.	Cactaceae	kong que lan (YN)	令箭荷花	c	flowers		v	stir-fried after blanching; cooked in water for soup	Whole plant for ornamental.	0.07	0.11	DL273
102	Nymphaea tetragona Georgi	Nymphaeaceae	ci bi hua (YN)	睡莲	c	corollas		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as tea substitute	Flowers for clear heat and dissipating the effects of alcoholism, also for purifying the air. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.13	0.88
103	Ocimum basilicum L.	Lamiaceae		罗勒	c, e	inflorescence	always tender stems and leaves	v, se	stir-fried; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Whole plant for medicine to reduce fevers and expel intestinal parasites	0.13	3.60	DL109
104	Ocimum basilicum var. pilosum (Willd.) Benth.	Lamiaceae		疏柔毛罗勒	c, e	inflorescence	always tender stems and leaves	v, se	cooked with other food as a flavoring	Whole plant as medicine.	0.07	0.30	DL166
105	Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC.	Apiaceae		水芹	w	inflorescence	always tender stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	Young aerial part used as a vegetable. Whole plants for treating rheumatism, neuralgia, hypertension	0.67	27.00	DL038
106	Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.	Cactaceae		梨果仙人掌	c	flowers		v	stir-fried		0.07	0.03
107	Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.	Cactaceae	xian tao xian ba zhang (YN)	单刺仙人掌	e	flowers		v	stir-fried	Fruit is edible.	0.07	0.03
108	Origanum vulgare L.	Lamiaceae	dian xiang ru, su zi cao, xiang ru (YN)	牛至	w	inflorescence		v, se	cooked with other food as a flavoring	Preventing the flu.	0.07	0.30
109	Osmanthus fragrans Lour.	Oleaceae	gui hua (YN); ji wei long zai (YI)	木樨	c	flowers		v, b, sn	stir-fried; scenting tea; making cakes	Flowers for expelling phlegm, eliminating blood stasis, invigorating spleen and kidney; decoction to moisten the lungs and reduce fever. Roots and fruits are used as medicine	0.33	54.00
110	Ottelia acuminata (Lévl. et Vant.) Dandy	Hydrocharitaceae	shui xing yang hua (YN)	海菜花	c	flowers, peduncles	sometimes young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Flowers for treating hemoptysis, asthma, and constipation. Ornamental plant. Indicator plants for environmental conditions. Used as fish feed and pig feed	0.93	224.00	DL062
111	Oxalis corniculata L.	Oxalidaceae		酢浆草	w	flowers	leaves	v	eaten raw	Flowers for stomachache. Leaves and fruits are eaten raw.	0.73	19.80	DL223
112	Paeonia lactiflora Pall.	Paeoniaceae		芍药	c	flowers		v, b, sn	stir-fried; cooked in water for congee or soup; making cakes or beverages; cooked with other food	Flowers for nourishing blood, astringing yin, softening liver, and relieving pain. The bark of root as medicine. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.13	0.66
113	Paeonia × suffruticosa Andr.	Paeoniaceae	dan pi (YN)	牡丹	c	flowers		v	stir-fried	Flowers promote blood flow for regulating menstruation. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.07	3.60
114	Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.	Lamiaceae		紫苏	c	flowers	young leaves	se	cooked with other food as a flavoring	Flower buds stems, and leaves are used for treating blood deficiency and cold	0.73	33.00	DL174
115	Persicaria odorata (Lour.) Sojak	Polygonaceae		香辣蓼	c	inflorescence	stems and leaves	v, se	cooked with other food as a flavoring	Whole plant as seasoning.	0.33	1.13
116	Persicaria runcinata var. sinensis (Hemsl.) Bo Li	Polygonaceae	xue dang gui (YN)	赤胫散	w	flowers	leaves	v	eaten raw with condiments	Rhizome as medicine for arresting sweating regulating menstruation and relieving pain.	0.20	0.36
117	Pinus yunnanensis Franch.	Pinaceae	chang mao song (YN)	云南松	w	pollen		sn	making cakes; brewed	Flowers for moistening heat and lung, benefiting qi, dispelling pathogenic wind for hemostasis. As timber.	0.67	48.00	DL320
118	Prinsepia utilis Royle	Rosaceae	qing ci guo (YN)	扁核木	w	flowers	young leaves	v	stir-fried	Stems and leaves as medicine. Seed oil for food, skin care, and medicinal purposes	0.27	1.32
119	Prunus armeniaca L.	Rosaceae	xing hua (YN)	杏	c	flowers		v	after blanching in hot water, a cold dish with cucumber	Flowers for activating blood circulation and for skin care.	0.33	4.39	DL236
120	Prunus cerasoides (D. Don) Sok.	Rosaceae	ying hua (YN)	高盆樱桃	c	inflorescence		v	as cold dish	Ornamental plants, decorating dishes.	0.13	0.39
121	Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	Rosaceae	mei zi (YN)	梅	w, c	flowers		v	cooked in water for soup	Flowers for regulating qi-flowing for strengthening the spleen. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.40	8.10	DL129
122	Prunus persica L.	Rosaceae		桃	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v	cooked with other food; as tea substitute; brewed	Flowers promote blood circulation for nourishing the heart and lubricating the intestines. For skin care. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.67	81.00	DL312
123	Psidium guajava L.	Myrtaceae		番石榴	c	flowers		v, se	stir-fried; cooked with other food	Flowers for strengthening spleen and nourishing lung, strengthening and nourishing marrow and essence. Fruit is edible. Leaves and stem skins for medicine.	0.07	0.52	DL031
124	Punica granatum L.	Lythraceae		石榴	c	flowers; calyces		v, b	stir-fried; cooked in water; as tea substitute	Astringing for hemostasis, removing blood stasis, relieving pain, and removing toxic substances. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.27	19.44	DL081
125	Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Rosaceae	geng gai fang (YI); tang li hua (YN)	川梨	w	flower buds		v	stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as cold dish; infused in alcohol	Flowers are used to treat cough, emesis, and diarrhea. As stock.	0.67	105.30	DL022
126	Raphanus sativus L.	Brassicaceae	bai luo bo (YN)	萝卜	c	inflorescence	young stems and leaves	v	stir-fried	For treating urinary system stones, and indigestion ailments. A common vegetable.	0.73	19.80	DL270
127	Rhododendron ciliicalyx Franch.	Ericaceae	xiao ma le (YN)	睫毛萼杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching, rinsing to remove bitterness, and soaking to eliminate mild toxicity, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as a cold dish	Ornamental plant.	0.13	1.05
128	Rhododendron ciliipes Hutch.	Ericaceae		香花白杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.13	0.30
129	Rhododendron decorum Franch.	Ericaceae	bo hua (YN)	大白杜鹃	c(imported)	corollas		v	after blanching, rinsing to remove bitterness, and soaking to eliminate mild toxicity, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as a cold dish	Roots and leaves are used for activating blood circulation to relieve pain, rheumatic pain, and injuries caused by falls. Ornamental plant.	0.67	94.50
130	Rhododendron maddenii subsp. crassum (Franch.) Cullen	Ericaceae		滇隐脉杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.13	0.30
131	Rhododendron mucronatum (Blume) G. Don	Ericaceae	cai gu mi luo tong zai (YI)	白花杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried; and cooked in water for soup	Decoction of the roots for treating cystitis and hepatitis. Ornamental plant	0.13	1.80
132	Rhododendron pachypodum Balf. F et W. W. Smith	Ericaceae	bai dou hua (YN); bai du hu (BA)	云上杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, it is stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; as a cold dish	Ornamental plant.	0.53	25.20
133	Rhododendron roseatum Hutch.	Ericaceae		红晕杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.07	0.03
134	Rhododendron siderophyllum Franch.	Ericaceae		锈叶杜鹃	w	corollas		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant.	0.20	1.20
135	Rhododendron taronense Hutch.	Ericaceae		薄皮杜鹃	w	flowers		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant	0.13	0.06
136	Rhododendron yungchangense Cullen	Ericaceae		少鳞杜鹃	w	flowers		v	after blanching and rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried	Ornamental plant	0.07	0.06
137	Robinia pseudoacacia L.	Fabaceae	huai hua (YN)	刺槐	c(imported)	inflorescence		v, b, sn	eaten raw; stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; brewed; fried; steamed; as tea substitute; making cakes	Decoction of inflorescence for spasm, clearing heat, expelling phlegm, lowering blood pressure, and diuresis. Ornamental plant for greening.	0.53	345.60	DL339
138	Rosa banksiae Ait.	Rosaceae	bai ci hua (YN)	木香花	c	flowers		v, b, sn	stir-fried with eggs; scenting tea	Relieving pain and hemostasis	0.13	1.80	DL363
139	Rosa centifolia L.	Rosaceae		千叶蔷薇	c	flowers, mostly corollas		b, sn	scenting tea; as fillings of cakes; infused in alcohol	Ornamental plant	0.07	0.15
140	Rosa chinensis ’Crimson Glory’	Rosaceae		墨红玫瑰	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v, b, sn, fd	stir-fried; cooked in water for congee or soup; fried; as tea substitute; scenting tea; coloring; brewed; as fillings of cakes; pickled as jam	Flowers for activating qi-flowing, resolving stagnation, reconciling bleed, and relieving pain. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.80	864.00	DL168
141	Rosa damascena Mill.	Rosaceae		大马士革玫瑰	c(imported)	flowers, mostly corollas		b, sn	scenting tea; as fillings of cakes; infused in alcohol	Ornamental plant	0.07	0.15
142	Rosa gallica ’Dianhong’	Rosaceae		滇红玫瑰	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v, b, sn	stir-fried; cooked in water for congee or soup; fried; as cold dish; cooked with other food; brewed; as fillings of cakes; as tea substitute; scenting tea; pickled as jam	Ornamental plants, decorating dishes. Cultural plant.	0.33	9.00	DL291
143	Rosa multiflora Thunb.	Rosaceae	yue ji hua (YN)	野蔷薇	c	flowers		v	stir-fried; stewed with pork, ham, or tofu	Flowers strengthen the stomach, invigorating kidneys, clearing heat, and removing dampness. Ornamental plant. Young shoots are edible. Used as medicine to treat thirst, diarrhea, malaria, wound bleeding	0.07	1.20
144	Sagittaria trifolia subsp. leucopetala (Miq.) Q. F. Wang	Alismataceae	ci gu (YN)	慈姑	c	flowers		v	cooked in water for congee	Flowers for clearing heat toxins and anti-tumor.	0.20	1.80
145	Salvia splendens Ker-Gawler	Lamiaceae		一串红	c	nectar		sn	eaten raw; as a sweetener in a cold dish	Flowers for clearing heat toxins, cooling bleed, and detumescence. Whole plant for medicine.	0.27	7.20	DL255
146	Smilax riparia A. DC.	Smilacaceae		牛尾菜	w	inflorescence	always young leaves	v	stir-fried	Roots and rhizomes for rheumatic arthritis syndrome, low back pain caused by fatigue, injuries caused by falls, coughing, and wheezing.	0.27	1.80	DL093
147	Sophora davidii (Franch.) Skeels	Fabaceae	ku ci hua (YN); luo ci zai (YI)	白刺花	w	flowers		v	after rinsing to remove bitterness, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup	Flowers for treating throat swelling and pain, and urinary tract stones. Roots and pods for digestion ailments.	0.27	9.60	DL084
148	Styphnolobium japonicum (L.) Schott	Fabaceae	mi long wu jie zai (YI)	槐	c	flowers		v, b, sn	drying, or after burning to ash, stir-fried; cooked in water for soup; infused in alcohol; as tea substitute; as fillings of cakes	Flowers for hemostasis and removing liver fire for improving eyesight. Ornamental plant for greening. Cultural plant. Leaves and root bark for clearing heat toxins; wood for construction	0.13	6.60	DL009
149	Tamarindus indica L.	Fabaceae	suan jiao (YN)	酸豆	w	flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked in water	Common fruit in the tropics. Used as medicine to treat heat stroke, loss of appetite, infantile malnutrition, pregnancy vomiting, and constipation. Tender stems and leaves are edible. Cultural plant.	0.07	0.45
150	Telosma cordata (Burm. f.) Merr.	Apocynaceae	ye xiang teng (YN)	夜来香	c	flowers		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried	Leaves for medicine. Ornamental plant.	0.20	0.48	DL379
151	Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxburgh ex Hornemann) Honda	Poaceae		粽叶芦	w	young inflorescence		v	stir-fried; cooked in water; eaten raw	Leaves for ripping food; Infructescence used to make brooms. Roots for treating diarrhea, thirst, cough, and asthma	0.07	0.56	DL048
152	Trachycarpus fortunei (Hook.) H. Wendl.	Palmae	zong bao hua (YN)	棕榈	c	young inflorescence		v	after blanching in hot water, stir-fried or cooked in water for soup	Flowers soaking in boiling water can be used to cure stomach problems. Roots, leaves, and fruits for medicine. Relieving diarrhea, resolving masses and hemostasis. Cultural plant.	0.27	15.84	DL354
153	Tulipa gesneriana L.	Liliaceae	hong lan hua (YN)	郁金香	c	flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked with other food	Ornamental plant	0.13	0.16
154	Ulmus pumila L.	Ulmaceae	yu qian hua (YN)	榆树	w	flowers		v	stir-fried	Flowers for invigorating kidney qi. Young fruit is edible.	0.20	0.96
155	Urtica thunbergiana Sieb. et Zucc.	Urticaceae	huo ma (YN)	咬人荨麻	w	inflorescence		v	stir-fried	As medicine.	0.33	2.60
156	Vicia faba L.	Fabaceae		蚕豆	c	flowers		v	stir-fried	Common edible legume	0.33	0.98	DL230
157	Wisteria brevidentata Rehd.	Fabaceae		短梗紫藤	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fried	Ornamental plant	0.20	0.33
158	Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC.	Fabaceae	teng hua cai (YN)	紫藤	c	flowers		v, sn	stir-fried; cooked in water for congee or soup; stir-fried or fried with eggs; as fillings of cakes	Stem bark, flowers, and seeds can be used as medicine to treat muscle and bone pain, meridian wind and energy, and rheumatic pain	0.20	17.55	DL294
159	Yulania denudata (Desr.) D. L. Fu	Magnoliaceae	ying chun hua (YN)	玉兰	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v	stewed with eggs; cooked with other food	Flowers for dispelling pathogenic wind, dispelling cold for resuscitation, and dispersing lung qi. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.67	48.00	DL113
160	Yulania liliiflora (Desr.) D. L. Fu	Magnoliaceae	xin yi hua (YN)	紫玉兰	c	flowers, mostly corollas		v	cooked with other food	Flowers for dispelling pathogenic wind, dispelling cold for resuscitation, and dispersing lung qi. Ornamental plant. Cultural plant.	0.60	18.72
161	Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.	Rutaceae		花椒	c	flowers		v	stir-fried; cooked with other food	Flowers for strengthening the stomach and relieving pain. Fruit is used as seasoning and medicine.	0.73	105.60
162	Zea mays L.	Gramineae	mai (YI)	玉蜀黍	c	inflorescence		v	stir-fired; as cold dish after blanching	Worldwide food crop, also for forage and medicine	0.80	31.20
163	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	Zingiberaceae		姜	c	inflorescence		v, se	stir-fired; cooked with other food as a flavoring	Common spice crop	0.80	57.60	DL122

Species in the inventory are alphabetically arranged based on the scientific name of the species. Type: c, cultivated; w, wild; e, escaped. Categories of use type: v, vegetable; b, beverage; sn, snack; se, seasoning; fd, food dye.

. It is important to note that the Bai language has been gradually influenced by Mandarin. As a result, in documenting species’ vernacular names, the versions in Yunnan dialects are largely equivalent to those in the Bai language.

Among all the recorded EF species, Fabaceae was the largest family with 13 species (8.0%), followed by Rosaceae and Brassicaceae, each with 12 species (Figure 2, green bar). Rhododendron was the largest genus, with 10 taxa (Figure 2, yellow bar), and is the only genus in Ericaceae with EFs. Brassica also has many EFs, with 8 species, followed by Rosa and Allium. Families such as Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Asteraceae contain more genera with EFs, even though each genus has one or two EF species (Figure 2, red bar). There are 84 genera with only one species, showing the rich phylogenetic diversity.

The growth types of EFs include cultivated (c), wild (w), and escaped (e). Of the 163 EFs in Dali, 115 (70.6%) EFs are cultivated or can be cultivated, including 7 imported species, which is more than the wild (58) and escaped (8) ones (Figure 3). Twelve species have both wild and cultivated types. Local communities in Yunnan are still in the process of recognizing and utilizing plants with edible floral organs. A significant number of EFs are repeatedly and sustainably utilized due to long-term cultivation, while many wild EFs could become key species for future development and utilization.

Due to its unique topography, mild climate, and extremely high biodiversity, Dali has generated abundant edible plant resources. The large number of reported EFs serves as an important dietary buffer, providing nutrition and contributing to a unique culinary culture that attracts visitors to the region [33]. High dietary diversity refers to a greater number of food types or groups [7]. Although the high species diversity of EFs does not equate to high dietary diversity, it still broadens food choices for the local population, laying the foundation for high dietary diversity. The positive correlation between wild edible plants and dietary diversity was demonstrated [34]. A significant proportion of wild edible plants with nutritional advantages and endemicity, can provide a vital source of sustenance for local communities facing food insecurity or extreme famine [4].

3.2. Cultural Diversity of Edible Flowers

3.2.1. The Edible Parts of EFs

The edible parts of the floral organ are various, including inflorescence, spathes, spadices, flowers, flower buds, peduncles, receptacles, calyces, corollas, stamens, pollen and nectar (Figure 4). The most commonly consumed part is the flower as a whole (86 species, 52.8%), followed by inflorescence (50 species, 30.7%) and corollas (26 species, 16.0%). Most floral organs are collected or used alone (117 species, 71.8%). They are also used with other parts of the plant, being collected or consumed with leaves, stems, fruits, and shoots. Leaves are most often consumed with flowers (43 species), followed by stems (24 species). Three EFs are consumed with their young shoots and one with fruits. When locals collect or consume flowers, it is not always necessary to do so with other parts. The young and tender parts are often preferred when other parts are consumed together.

3.2.2. The Consume Type and Methods

The EFs consumed by Dali people include vegetable(v), beverage(b), snack(sn), seasoning(se), and food dye(fd). Vegetables are the most common dietary type with 148 species (90.8%). Some EFs, such as Agastache rugosa, Basella alba, Brassica juncea, and Brassica rapa var. Glabra, are common vegetables in Yunnan (Figure 5A–D). Their flowers are so small that they are never consumed without stems and leaves. Compared to them, species such as Cucurbita moschata, Hemerocallis citrina, Rhododendron decorum, and Robinia pseudoacacia, whose inflorescences or flowers are consumed on their own, are true “flower vegetable” (Figure 5E–H).

In addition to being used as vegetables, EFs in Dali are also used as beverages, snacks, seasonings, and food dyes. Forty-four EFs (27.0%) have more than one use type. Due to the diversity of species and dietary habits, EFs are prepared using a variety of methods (Figure 6). They can be stir-fried, cooked in water for congee or soup, steamed, stewed, pickled, fried, roasted, brewed, cooked with other food, eaten raw, infused in alcohol, used for coloring something, scenting tea, making cakes, or serve as cold dishes or tea substitutes (Figure 7). Being stir-fried (119, 73.0%) is the most common preparation method, followed by being cooked in water for congee or soup (70, 42.9%). They are all traditional Chinese cooking methods with the most commonly used.

Among the 36 EFs used as beverages in Dali, 31 are used as tea substitutes, and 7 are used for scenting tea. Tea, a globally popular beverage, holds significant cultural and social importance in China. Yunnan is considered the botanical origin of tea (Camellia sinensis) in the world while Dali is one of the earliest areas in Yunnan to grow and consume tea [35,36]. Scenting tea refers to the mixture of flowers and tea to be consumed together, using the scent and color of the flowers to enhance the flavor. Tea substitutes are non-tea substances steeped in boiling water, serving as an alternative to real tea (the leaves of Camellia sinensis or C. taliensis). The practice of applying various flowers to tea is an extension of the rich tea culture. Similarly, a total of 13 EFs are brewed or infused in alcohol to make wine, which is part of Chinese drinking culture.

Snack is the third category of EFs consumed by local people in Dali, with a total of 21 species. Most of these are ingredients for making cakes, often as fillings. Ten EFs are consumed as a seasoning, a finding that is consistent with previous findings on the diversity of edible spice plants in Dali [20]. Being cooked with other food is the preparation method for all seasoning EFs, which is the fourth largest category of food preparation methods, with 26 EFs. In addition to the 12 EFs used as seasonings, 14 EFs are used as complementary ingredients in cooking, adding flavor and esthetic appeal to dishes. The floral organs of Buddleja officinalis, Hibiscus sabdariffa, and Rosa chinensis are used as food dyes to color rice or beverages.

Furthermore, 31 species of EFs (19.0%) require pre-processing, such as blanching in hot water, rinsing, soaking, or removing certain parts like stamens, spadices, receptacles, pistils, and peel of peduncles before cooking or consumption to eliminate bitterness or mild toxicity. Musa acuminata needs to be rubbed with salt. Almost all EFs from the genus Rhododendron are poisonous, requiring pre-processing before cooking. Specifically, removing the spadices of Colocasia esculenta is a traditional preparation method throughout Yunnan. In Dali, the spadices of C. esculenta can be deep-fried, then stewed or stir-fried with pork and chili peppers, and served either as a topping for noodles and rice noodles or as a side dish with alcohol.

3.2.3. The Additional Use(s)

There are multiple uses of flower-eating plants in Dali. In addition to their consumption as food, 125 EFs (76.7%) can be used for medicinal purposes, followed by 63 species for ornamental use and 26 for cultural practices. The floral organs of 66 EFs are used as medicine with clear specifications of the treated affections. The flowers of Dendrobium nobile, Houpoea officinalis, Lonicera japonica, Carthamus tinctorius, Crocus sativus, and others have long been recognized by traditional Chinese medicine. Though Carthamus tinctorius and Crocus sativus can be found in Dali markets, they are consumed for food purposes only infrequently. The culture surrounding local food plants is inextricably linked with traditional healing systems [37]. They hold the potential to provide valuable raw materials and relevant knowledge for the development of healthy food and drugs [38]. Our ethnobotanical study in Dali further emphasizes that flowers are a crucial plant part for medicinal use, which should not be ignored [11].

3.3. Biocultural Characteristics of EFs

3.3.1. The ROF and CFSI Value of EFs

The ROF and CFSI values for all recorded EFs were calculated and are shown in the inventory (Table 4). Detailed values for each factor of each EF are provided in the Supplementary Materials (Table S1). The ROF values range from 0.07 to 1.00. Eight EFs (Allium hookeri, Allium sativum, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Brassica oleracea var. italica, Brassica rapa var. chinensis, Brassica rapa var. glabra, Colocasia esculenta, Cucurbita moschata) were recorded in all 15 surveyed markets while 32 EFs only found in a single market. The CFSI values range from 0.03 to 864.00. These values are classified into six categories: very high (CFSI ≥ 300), high (CFSI= 100.00–299.99), medium (CFSI = 20.00–99.99), low (CFSI= 5.00–19.99), very low (CFSI= 1.00–4.99), and negligible (CFSI < 1.00) [30]. The majority of EFs (68.1%) fall into the ‘negligible’, ‘very low’, and ‘low’ groups. Twenty-two EFs have CFSI values exceeding 100, of which four exceed 300. Two flowers with the highest CFSI values, Rosa spp. (edible species, cultivars, or types) and Chrysanthemum morifolium, are worldwide EFs [13]. Following these, the flowers of Robinia pseudoacacia, Cucurbita moschata, and Allium tuberosum, also rank high in CFSI values and are more commonly consumed in southern China, though they can also be found in the north. Interestingly, some species with the highest ROF values do not exhibit similarly high CFSI values, such as those from the Brassica genus. They are commonly found in local markets and are important foods within local communities, but their cultural significance as true “edible flowers” is less pronounced. Conversely, some locally representative EFs, such as Ottelia acuminata and Rhododendron spp., have lower CFSI values, which could be influenced by factors such as the locals’ willingness to sell them, as well as the seasonal availability and the frequency of surveys.

3.3.2. Representative Edible Flowers

Ottelia acuminata

Ottelia acuminata is one of the most representative edible flower species in Dali (Figure 8). Commonly known as “Hai cai hua” in Chinese, the term “Hai” refers to the sea or huge water body. Because Yunnan is inland with numerous mountains, far from the actual sea, the locals use “Hai” to describe large lakes. For example, the Erhai watershed, a part of the Lancang River basin, is located in the center of Dali City. It is a famous lake with around 250 square kilometers. The term “Cai” means vegetable, while “Hua” means flower. Thus, in the view of the locals in Dali, O. acuminata is a species that grows in Erhai Lake and other wetlands with obvious flowers and is consumed as a vegetable.

O. acuminata belongs to the Hydrocharitaceae family. It is endemic to China with four known varieties distributed mainly in southwestern China, particularly in Yunnan Province. This aquatic plant thrives in lakes, ponds, ditches, and deep-water fields at altitudes below 2700 m. Apart from its floral organs, it is a perennial submerged plant that remains entirely underwater [39].

The Bai people of Dali have a long culinary tradition involving O. acuminata, with written records of its use dating back to the mid-19th century [40]. Locals typically consume the entire floral organ, with a particular preference for the slender flower stalk, sometimes along with a bit of stem and leaves. Traditional dishes include flower stalks cooked with tofu, or its stalks and stems cooked with taro. In Heqing County of Dali Prefecture, the Bai people also stir-fry the leaves and flower stalks with ham, and shredded pork, or pickle them for later consumption. Additionally, O. acuminata has a role in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various ailments, including urinary retention, constipation, heat-induced cough, hemoptysis, asthma, stranguria, and edema [39].

O. acuminata requires pristine water quality and can only thrive in clean, unpolluted waters. However, due to factors such as water pollution, changes in land use, the spread of invasive species, and the overstocking of grass carp (which feed on O. acuminata), its population in highland lakes has sharply declined [40,41]. As a result, O. acuminata has been classified as an endangered species and is listed as a national second-class protected plant in China.

In Yunnan, O. acuminata is highly regarded as a delicacy. As early as the 1980s, farmers in Eryuan County, Dali, began experimenting with the artificial transplantation of O. acuminata. Over time, they discovered that the O. acuminata thrives in nutrient-poor environments and is sensitive to pesticide pollution. Thus, they avoid using chemical fertilizers, manure, or pesticides during cultivation, ensuring the healthy growth of O. acuminata while preserving the cleanliness of the water it inhabits. With the support of government departments such as forestry, environmental protection, agriculture, and water resources in Yunnan Province, the area of O. acuminata cultivation has gradually expanded. The transplantation efforts by local farmers have proven effective as a form of ex situ conservation, protecting and managing the plant’s genetic resources and broadening its habitat. By 2023, the cultivation area of O. acuminata in Eryuan had reached 100 hectares, yielding 2700 tons and generating an economic output of 21.6 million yuan [42]. The plant can be harvested year-round, as its flower stalks continue to sprout, ensuring a consistent yield. This steady production has provided local villagers with a stable and sustainable source of income, contributing significantly to rural revitalization.

Rhododendron

In this study, we identified 10 species of EFs in the genus Rhododendron, making it the largest genus among all 108 genera documented. Yunnan Province is the origin and distribution center of Rhododendron species, offering a favorable climate, soil, and geographical advantages for their growth [43]. Dali is known as the “Kingdom of rhododendrons,” boasting abundant Rhododendron resources.

Plants in the genus Rhododendron are known for their toxicity. The local Bai people have long recognized this, referring to them as “poisonous flowers”. They believe that the deeper the flower color, the more toxic the plant is. Therefore, the local Rhododendron decorum, with its large, thick-petaled white flowers (Figure 9A), is the most popular edible rhododendron, holding the highest CFSI value among all Rhododendron EFs. R. pachypodum is another commonly consumed EF whose corolla has white petals with a faint red hue on the outer side [18]. Due to their pleasant taste and the long blooming period of one to two months, these species have become delicacies for the Bai people, often served at banquets, weddings, and funerals.

The locals in Dali have developed specific methods for harvesting and processing rhododendrons. Since the pollen contains mild toxins, people with weaker health are advised to avoid gathering them, as it may cause dizziness, palpitations, or even vomiting. Only individuals in good health can go up the mountain to collect flowers, with an average daily harvest of about 50 kg. The harvested flowers are typically not stored overnight to avoid spoilage. The edible parts, primarily the corollas, are carefully separated from the toxic stamens and boiled for a few minutes before being soaked in cold water. The flowers are then rinsed for 3 to 5 days, with the water changed daily to remove bitterness and toxins. In the market, it is common to find rhododendrons that have already been blanched (Figure 9B). These flowers are often cooked or stir-fried with broad beans, pork, or ham (Figure 9C,D), and can also be pickled for long-term preservation and consumption. The boiling and rinsing times are carefully controlled, as excessive time is believed to diminish the medicinal benefits of the flowers.

Every May to June, locals in Dali consume various native rhododendrons. Consuming rhododendrons during this season is believed to help the body acclimate to changes in the environment and promote health. However, different ethnic groups hold varying beliefs regarding its benefits. The Bai people believe that consuming rhododendrons aids digestion and helps reduce fat storage in the body, while the Naxi people regard the white flowers of rhododendrons as nourishing for both humans and animals. For the Lahu people, rhododendrons are considered medicinal flowers that promote digestion, and they often serve rhododendron-based dishes to guests [44]. Nutritional studies on Rhododendron decorum have found that its flowers are rich in vitamin B6, minerals, and amino acids [45].

People in Dali consciously protect R. decorum and its habitats during harvesting and other activities for the importance of the species for local consumption. Research on the genetic diversity of R. decorum indicates that its utilization by local people has not led to a decline in genetic diversity [46]. However, due to the climatic and land use changes expected over the next 50 years, many Rhododendron species are expected to be negatively affected. All wide-ranging species, including R. decorum the local community most consumed, will likely decrease [47]. Therefore, it is important to manage the Rhododendron resources in Dali rationally and make them sustainable by maximizing their positive impact on the local food system.

Edible roses

Rose is a worldwide edible flower. Consuming roses is common in China, such as eating rose flower cakes produced from Yunnan, as well as drinking ‘rose tea’ which is made by steeping rose petals or buds in boiling water as a tea substitute. ‘Rose tea’ is particularly favored by young people as an alternative to traditional tea. In Yunnan Province, the consumption of roses is particularly prevalent. Several varieties of edible roses commonly used as food in Dali Prefecture are mainly Rosa gallica ‘Dianhong’ (Dian Hong in the local language), Rosa chinensis ‘Crimson Glory’ (Mo Hong), Rosa centifolia (Qianye Meigui), and Rosa damascena (Damashige Meigui) [48]. There has been the tradition of consuming roses for more than one hundred years in a variety of ways, such as soaking the flowers in cool water, removing the petals, and scrambling them with eggs—a traditional rose delicacy commonly prepared in households.

The utilization of roses in Dali extends beyond local markets and household kitchens. Rose products, particularly rose flower cakes, have become emblematic of Yunnan’s edible flower industry. With over a century of consumption history, rose flower cakes have developed into a well-established industry, with refined processes for cultivation, harvesting, storage, processing, and production. In addition to rose tea and cakes, a wide range of rose-based products is available, including rose vinegar, rose jam, rose cheese, and rose brown sugar. These products are popular among locals and tourists and are sold across China (Figure 10) [49].

In particular, people in Dali enjoy making rose flowers into rose jam, which is primarily used to sweeten various rice and flour-based foods. There is a famous local saying: “Rose jam paired with Xizhou baba and roasted milk fan is a perfect match. Eating Xizhou baba and roasted milk fan without rose jam is like eating without a soul” [20]. Both Xizhou baba and roasted milk fan are famous traditional local snacks made from wheat flour and milk, respectively.

Integrating EFs with local specialties not only enhances the appearances and flavors of local products, thereby increasing their market appeal but also promotes the development of edible flower cultivation and related industries. Roses, in particular, play a significant role in this trend. Beyond their culinary use, roses are harvested for essential oil extraction, which is widely applied in cosmetics, chemicals, and other industries. The edible rose industry in Yunnan has scaled up significantly, developing a complete industrial chain and accumulating advanced knowledge and technology in cultivation and processing. As a result, Yunnan has become a leading region for the industrial production of edible flowers [50].

3.4. Comparison with EFs in Xishuangbanna

Xishuangbanna is an autonomous prefecture in South Yunnan. Because of the geographical environment and rainforest climate, it is one of the areas with the richest biodiversity in China [51]. The ethnobotanical study conducted in Xishuangbanna shows 212 taxa EFs there with diverse delicacy culture [11]. The number of EFs in Dali is less than that in Xishuangbanna, supporting the trend of decreasing EF diversity from south to north in Yunnan [19]. The JI value of 31.12, with 89 EFs shared between the two regions, indicates a relatively high similarity in their EFs.

Dali is situated in the northwestern part of Yunnan with a low-latitude plateau monsoon climate, while Xishuangbanna has a tropical monsoon climate. Dali’s average elevation is about 1 km higher than that of Xishuangbanna, and the ethnic compositions of the two regions are also quite different. Both regions possess a large variety of distinct EFs. However, there are exceptions. Binchuan, a county in the eastern part of Dali Prefecture, is located along the southern bank of the Jinsha River’s hot and dry valley. Its annual average temperature is about 3 °C higher than that of Dali Prefecture, enabling the growth of some tropical EFs such as Bombax ceiba, Melastoma malabathricum, Ocimum basilicum, and Tamarindus indica.

In recent years, the rapid economic growth driven by tourism and urban development has contributed to enhanced transportation networks, facilitating the exchange of species, biocultural knowledge, and ethnic cultures. This has led to the presence of shared EFs between the two regions. For example, tropical species like Musa acuminata flowers, native to humid, warm climates, have begun to appear in Dali’s markets. The common EF Rhododendron decorum of Dali can also be found in Xishuangbanna. These overlapping EFs, mostly widely cultivated species, suggest that flower-eating practices are widespread across Yunnan.

In Xishuangbanna, where the dominant linguistic groups are Dai, Hani, and Yao, people favor consuming the inflorescences or floral parts of Musa acuminata, Bauhinia variegata var. candida, Mayodendron igneum, and Gmelina arborea, etc. These species thrive only in the specific environment and climatic conditions of Xishuangbanna [11]. In contrast, in Dali with cooler climates, species like Ottelia acuminata or Rhododendron spp. are more prevalent. In addition to species, traditional knowledge such as cooking methods also differ. Although Buddleja officinalis is found in both prefectures, the Bai people, who are the primary linguistic group in Dali, rarely use it to dye rice, while the yellow rice dyed with it is an essential food for the Dai people in Xishuangbanna for their New Year celebrations. People in Dali favor making dairy-based snacks paired with rose jam, a practice unique to Dali. People in Xishuangbanna are skilled in using large leaves of Musa spp. in their daily lives. A distinctive traditional cooking method in Xishuangbanna is called “bao shao”, where food is wrapped in big leaves of Musa spp. or Phrynium rheedei and then roasted directly over charcoal. This practice is absent in Dali, except in Dai restaurants run by people from Xishuangbanna or other southern Yunnan regions.

Despite these differences in the edible species and methods, both two prefectures share certain commonalities in the flower-eating culture. In Dali, consuming white Rhododendron flowers is a sign of the beginning of spring. This tradition is similar to that in Xishuangbanna, where people enjoy the white flowers of Bauhinia variegata var. candida as a reminder to start spring plowing. Both flowers have large groups of people who consume them, making the consumption of these white flowers a significant tradition and custom in their areas. These practices have become significant cultural traditions and have extended to surrounding prefectures, symbolizing the rich culinary heritage of Yunnan’s flower-eating culture.

3.5. Contribution to the Sustainable Food System

Food biodiversity, which refers to the diversity of organisms used for food, is essential for sustainable food systems (SFS) [1]. According to FAO, an SFS not only provides food security and nutrition for all but also ensures the economic, social, and environmental foundations to sustain food security and nutrition for future generations are not compromised [52]. Edible flowers in Dali, as a traditional type of local food, offer nutritional and health benefits to the community. They also hold unique cultural significance and contribute to environmental and economic sustainability, playing a key role in the region’s local SFS (Figure 11).

3.5.1. Economic Impacts

The rich diversity of EFs supports the local subsistence and translates into economic benefits for the community [33]. All EFs surveyed from the Dali markets contribute to vendor’s incomes. Although most EFs were not sold as frequently as common vegetables, some representative species, such as Ottelia acuminata, Rhododendron decorum, R. pachypodum, Cucurbita moschata, Caragana sinica, and Colocasia esculenta, are commonly found in many stalls and local restaurants. The collection and marketing of Rhododendrons involve multiple value chains [26]. Various rose products are sold all over China, bringing long-term profits to vendors and self-employed individuals. Villagers engaged in large-scale cultivation of Ottelia acuminata or edible roses rely on these flowers for their livelihood. Therefore, the economic impacts of these EFs are integral to the local SFS.

3.5.2. Environmental Impacts

Locally sourced food with minimal transportation helps reduce food-miles emissions [53]. As a low-carbon diet, plant-based foods can significantly reduce costs on production-related health burdens and ecological degradation while curbing carbon emissions, delivering socio-economic benefits while mitigating climate change [54]. Most of the EFs in Dali are locally sourced, being a local food supply with a low carbon footprint. The consumption of exotic foods and processed products may be offset to some extent by the consumption of local EF. Meanwhile, the locality of the food supply can leverage regional biodiversity and ecological interactions to reduce reliance on external inputs and face multiple external shocks better, since the global food system relying on international cooperation deeply is often affected by political barriers and economic constraints [55,56]. A constant and stable supply of food is vital for creating an SFS [9].

Furthermore, the flower is a sustainable organ compared with the root and stem which are the functional but unsustainable organs of medicinal plants [29]. Collecting and consuming inflorescences and flowers have a lesser negative impact on plant populations compared to other plant parts. The rich genetic resources of EFs have been preserved through long-term cultivation, management, and utilization by local communities. For collection and consumption, some EFs are cultivated on a large scale. The hills adorned with white blossoms of Rhododendron spp. and the ponds dotted with the pure white Ottelia acuminata create beautiful landscapes. Additionally, some EFs are beneficial to their habitat. For example, O. acuminata helps purify water bodies by absorbing nitrogen and phosphorus in the water, improving water quality and offering ecological benefits [41].

3.5.3. Social Impacts

Humans have long relied on edible plants for sustenance. In many isolated and impoverished areas, edible plants provide essential nutrients, supporting the lives of the local people [29,31]. Studies show that many EFs are rich in protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and carbohydrates. A total of 302 bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids and organic acids, with 22 biological activities have been identified in various EFs [10,57].

Beyond their nutritional and health benefits, edible plants also serve as important social and cultural carriers, facilitating communication and promoting social cohesion within communities [58]. Flower-eating is a prevalent practice in Yunnan, not only because of the abundance of plant resources but also because it is deeply rooted in local tradition and dietary habits, rather than being simply a personal preference [14]. The associated traditional knowledge and practices have been accumulated, preserved, and transmitted over an extended period of time, forming rich biocultural diversity. In Dali, for example, different flower parts can be prepared in 16 distinct methods, yielding 5 distinct types of food. The local community possesses a clear understanding of which EFs necessitate specific processing prior to cooking to eliminate any potential toxicity or bitterness, as well as which can be harmoniously cooked with other plant parts such as stems and leaves.

The biocultural diversity of EFs is a key component of the SFS, driving the consumption of EFs and their economic value. Continuing the tradition of flower-eating is profitable for some locals, and thus the practice can be preserved and even expanded. For large-scale cultivated species such as Ottelia acuminata and roses, their habitats must be protected to ensure successful harvests. For instance, the water bodies where Ottelia acuminata grows need to remain clean, and transplantation and cultivation practices should be diversified to preserve and enhance genetic resources. All in all, biocultural diversity fosters a virtuous cycle within local food systems by positively mobilizing communities. Protecting biocultural diversity means maintaining the reciprocal relationships between people and edible species, which are crucial nodes in the local SFS.

4. Conclusions

Through ethnobotanical surveys conducted across 15 markets in Dali, 163 taxa of EFs from 56 families and 108 genera were documented. The people in Dali possess abundant traditional knowledge of EF species, preparation methods, and their cultural identities. Some edible plants, whose flower is one of the edible parts, exhibited high ROF values but low CFSI, reflecting minimal cultural significance. Ottelia acuminata, Rhododendron, and Rosa are representative EFs in Dali, with a long history of consumption and unique cultural connotations. The flower-eating species and culture in Dali are different from that in Xishuangbanna, highlighting the shared yet diverse practices of EFs in Yunnan. The diversity of EFs plays an important role in sustaining local food systems for its economic, environmental, and social impacts, of which the biocultural aspect is a crucial node.

However, it is important to note that this study only documented EFs found in markets. Although some restaurants were also surveyed to add additional information, it is possible that some EFs are only utilized in households or in some villages that were not included in the study. The CFSI results indicate that most EFs have minimal cultural significance and occupy a marginal position within the local food system. Those that are frequently utilized and valuable are undoubtedly placed on the market and traded. Consequently, our study encompasses the representative EFs in Dali, which can reflect the real situation of EFs there.

Cultural and traditions greatly influence local diets [26]. Diets that align with local culture are essential for the adoption of healthy and sustainable diet policies, thereby benefiting local communities, as well as the environment and the economy [59]. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the diversity and significance of EFs in Dali’s food system, offering guidance for promoting healthier diets and supporting sustainable development.