The Value of Stingless Bee Bioproducts for Human Health and Conservation: A Systematic Review

Abstract

In this systematic review, we look to the long-established medical relationship between humans and stingless bees to support the notion that health and conservation research needs to look differently at examples of the relationship between human health and biodiversity. Through the PRISMA statement, we synthesized 1128 Web of Science references between 2000 and 2024 regarding the clinical or experimental therapeutic applications of stingless bee bioproducts (honey and propolis) for human health. We aligned this trend with 2023’s leading morbidities in Mexico and people’s perceptions of healing experiences using stingless bee bioproducts. We found that the honey and propolis of 28 stingless bee species can aid in treating 8 out of the 19 most prevalent diseases in Mexico, primarily cancer, type-2 diabetes, obesity, and COVID-19. Although there is limited evidence from studies regarding the therapeutic applications of stingless bee bioproducts in the Americas, people can actively contribute to conservation as stewards of biodiversity by recognizing and appreciating the health benefits these bioproducts offer. We conclude that traditional meliponiculture systems safeguard knowledge that can be used to improve socio-ecosystem health. This is significant for strengthening locally based healthcare systems while fostering collaborative tropical landscape conservation.

1. Introduction

Human health is a unique adaptive state for each person that entails the absence of disease, the lack of pain, and a positive overall emotional feeling that depends on biodiversity [1,2]. Under these principles, health science has grown solidly with major scientific breakthroughs in medical science over the past 150 years. Medical advances meant significant increases in life expectancy at birth and overall life expectancy, better access to vaccines, pre-natal and infant care, and higher quality attention during pregnancy and childbirth, among others [3]. However, our health today is still affected by several socio-environmental problems resulting from the intensification of human activity. Modern society evolved amid an energy revolution driven by fossil fuels preceding a biodiversity and climate crisis that threatens our health and the survival of all living beings [4]. This scenario forged an instrumental view of biodiversity that overpowers the intrinsic and relational values that humans inherently have toward nature [5,6].

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) delineated the role of biodiversity conservation for human and planetary health as a global priority and stated that environmental stewardship contributes to secure livelihoods and improves the resilience of communities [7,8]. Biodiversity loss and the essential environmental conditions that ensure our wellbeing are the primary factors contributing to the global rise in morbidities and mortality rates [9,10], and the devastating COVID-19 pandemic is a recent reminder [11]. At the end of the global health emergency, COVID-19 had claimed 6,921,614 lives worldwide [12]. Therefore, it is urgent to rethink research frameworks that incorporate the connection between health and biodiversity conservation into national policies, plans, and programs [13]. In this scenario, it is crucial to reinforce research aimed at understanding and valuing how our health depends on biodiversity and ecosystem conservation.

To achieve this, health research must draw attention to rarely explored examples of the complex primeval relationship between human health and biodiversity. The ancient human–bee relationship illustrates this claim [14]. The earliest record of breeding Apis species for wax and honey is from Africa and dates to 7500 B.C. [15,16]. A similar event occurred in the tropics, in Mesoamerica, where 10,000 to 15,000 years ago, Indigenous civilizations developed a sacred relationship with various stingless bee species (Apidae: Meliponini), whose bioproducts became essential to their health systems [17]. This ancestral bond endures today due to Indigenous cosmologies and worldviews that reinforce affectivity, spirituality, family, and community values such as discipline, caring for others, perseverance, and respect for human and non-human beings and the environment [18,19]. Breeding stingless bees (meliponiculture) epitomizes a holistic knowledge system that enhances wellbeing and preserves vital ecosystem functions like pollination [20,21]. From this perspective, meliponiculture is not merely a form of livestock farming but a multidimensional agroforestry structure that significantly contributes to people’s overall wellbeing and landscape conservation. Notwithstanding, social and environmental drivers threaten the continuity of nature’s contribution to people provided by stingless bee diversity [22].

Stingless bees, also called meliponids, native or indigenous bees, are smaller (2–15 mm) than honey bees (10–15 mm) and are found exclusively in tropical and subtropical regions [23]. Unlike honey bees, meliponids have a vestigial sting, which is not an effective defense [24]. The morphology of the tongue (glossa) also distinguishes meliponids from honey bees, a key trait that influences their foraging efficiency [25] and determines the biological activities of their bioproducts [26]. In Mesoamerica, Indigenous people from Mexico maintain a close relationship with stingless bees; therefore, they can be regarded as cultural keystone species [27]. Of the >600 known species of meliponids [23], 46 are distributed in Mexico, of which 19 have keeping records [28]. Mexico’s health context embodies the concurrence of several modern ailments that deeply affect human health and erode cultural and biological diversity. Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and malignant tumors are among the leading causes of mortality in Mexico [29]. Mexico is the second most bioculturally diverse hotspot in the world [30], but underlying structural conditions amount to the major biodiversity and climate crisis this country faces [31].

Similar connections are maintained in many other tropical countries where Indigenous or traditional knowledges about the medicinal uses of stingless bee bioproducts have been the main inspiration for numerous Western research studies that evaluated their effectiveness and industrial applications [32,33,34]. Despite the evidence gathered in multiple scientific publications, local knowledge has not been considered to improve local health systems or as a conceptual basis for ecosystem restoration. With this rationale, we synthesized the available experimental evidence about the therapeutic applications of stingless bee bioproducts: honey and propolis. We addressed the following questions: (1) What are the research trends regarding the therapeutic applications of stingless bee bioproducts for human health? (2) How significant are the uses of bioproducts in addressing the leading morbidities and causes of death in Mexico? (3) To what extent does this align with the healing experiences of individuals using stingless bee bioproducts in Mexico?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Literature Sampling Process

This evidence synthesis was conducted as per the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol [35]. The scientific articles published between 2000 and 2024 were identified by searching all databases of the Clarivate Web of Science platform licensed to Universidad Veracruzana. The 24-year search window was according to the period defined by the WoS license terms granted to the Universidad Veracruzana. We used the WoS database because most of its publications have undergone a rigorous peer-review process and are one of the most well-regarded academic databases for systematic reviews [36]. We established common search terms in the title and specific terms in the topic. The search string for the title was TI = (“stingless bee*” AND honey* OR propolis) (Appendix A), while the topic search was based on the 2023 list of the top 20 morbidities reported by the Ministry of Health in Mexico [37] (Appendix A). We also included cancer as an increasing morbidity and mortality cause [29]. The search engine Google Scholar was not employed because it tends to omit literature [38] and has low levels of reproducibility [39], and neither was the Scopus database because the license was recently acquired (2025) by the Universidad Veracruzana.

2.2. Selection of Studies and Data Collection

The selection of studies and data collection was conducted according to [40]. After the search, all references were organized into a digital data table with these column headings: author(s) name(s), publication year, manuscript title, and abstract. During the initial screening, we selected the articles that met the following criteria: (1) were focused on human health, (2) tested the effects of stingless bees’ honey or propolis on cell lines, human subjects, or laboratory animals, (3) reported the common or scientific name of stingless bee species, and (4) reported the country of origin of the species or bioproducts. On the retrieval phase, we sought information in the abstract, keywords, and methodology sections. We excluded those articles that (1) were other scientific syntheses, (2) only reported the physicochemical properties of honey or propolis and in vitro antibacterial effects, (3) focused on honey or propolis from Apis species, (4) were tested for veterinary purposes, and (5) did not report the country of origin of the honey or propolis samples.

2.3. Open Interviews with Totonac Stingless Bee Keepers

The primary interest in qualitative, ethnographic research in health sciences is to study events as they are experienced—in a particular time and place, where the researcher works inside the context and is focused on a small number of cases, prioritizing a deeper and more complete scenario of each case [41]. Within the available ethnographic research instruments, we chose open interviews. The open interview is one of the most applied methods to collect qualitative information. It aims to reproduce the discourse that motivates an individual from the studied group. An open interview allows the researcher to identify structural motives that share a common ground, which were learned and understood through a contextual socialization [42].

From the mentioned ethnographic perspective, fieldwork consisted of open interviews. This research tool recognizes that researchers are part of an experience, where the relationship between the ethnographer and the research participants is a key route “to interpretively valid meanings—meanings that are part of the action we are trying to explain” [43] (p. 39). The research team visited local growers and their families in their homes or in their plots. Field diaries and audio recordings (with previous consent) allowed researchers to keep records of each exchange. We used the 1Transcribe software (version 2024) to transcribe each interview.

3. Results and Discussion

Through this scientific synthesis, we pinpoint the significance of biodiversity for human health and present evidence that understanding and appreciating this connection is crucial for conservation. To achieve our goal, we draw on the relationship between Indigenous people and stingless bees and the resulting medicinal knowledge of the healing properties of stingless bees’ bioproducts. By comparing government statistics on the leading causes of morbidity in Mexico with the reviewed scientific literature, we found that native honey and propolis produced by stingless bees are considerably promising as therapeutic coadjuvants for seven out of twenty morbidities, including cancer. Our findings respond to the three main research questions previously outlined.

3.1. Trends in the Therapeutic Applications of Stingless Bee Bioproducts (PRISMA Review Analysis)

A wealth of scientific information can be found about the therapeutic properties of stingless bee bioproducts. Much of this evidence comes from in vitro tests showing that honey and propolis effectively inhibit medically significant viruses and bacteria. Other studies investigate the oxidative potential of both bioproducts and conclude that their consumption enhances individuals’ immune systems, thus preventing diseases or improving overall health. We concentrated on cases that went further, purposedly looking to demonstrate that the direct consumption or application of stingless bee honey or propolis provides tangible health benefits. The guiding knowledge principles originated from people living in rural or indigenous areas in the tropics. With this in mind, we focused on studies involving cell lines, humans, or laboratory animals. The subsequent sections combine the results and discussion to ensure a better flow of ideas. With this rationale, the graphs in Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 correspond to PRISMA analysis results. Appendix A displays the list of prevalent morbidities from Mexico in 2023 and their coincidence with stingless bee species in each country. Figure 4 illustrates the traditional hives used to keep stingless bees in the municipality of Papantla, Veracruz. A discussion precedes each figure, supported by the existing literature on the matter.

Our search yielded 1128 scientific publications, of which 55 met our specific selection criteria (Figure 1).

All research was carried out in eight countries (Figure 2A). Approximately 96% of studies were conducted in Southeast Asia, primarily in countries like Malaysia (42%), Indonesia (29%), and Vietnam (11%) (Figure 2A). Latin American countries such as Brazil and Argentina accounted for 11% of studies (Figure 2A). Surprisingly, Mexico was not part of these lists, despite the widespread knowledge of an ancestral bond between people and stingless bees. On the other hand, in countries like Malaysia, stingless bee honey known as ‘kelulut’ is highly valued; the government, in collaboration with local universities and international partners, has invested in applied research to foster meliponiculture as a sustainable source of income [44]. Something similar happened in Indonesia [45] and Vietnam [46,47].

It should be noted that the review found fewer studies from Mexico. A possible explanation might be that the government and academia have not agreed on a long-term collaborative agenda that would enable the success of Southeast Asia to be replicated. Notwithstanding, the recent agroecological transition policy for food sovereignty in Mexico [48,49], along with the new Law on Humanities, Science, and Technology [50], has begun creating opportunities for collaboration and for researchers to engage with largely funded studies and grassroots development projects on the sustainable local management of stingless bees.

3.2. Stingless Bees’ Diversity

The scientific articles we selected showed that the health benefits derived from native honey and propolis were linked to twenty-eight species of stingless bees and one morphospecies (Appendix A). Southeast Asia also reported a higher percentage of species richness (93%), but countries with more publications did not necessarily study more bee species (Figure 2B). In this context, Indonesia reported a greater number of species (59%) than Malaysia (21%), followed by Vietnam (17%) (Figure 2B), whereas in Latin America, Argentina reported almost twice as many species (14%) as Brazil (7%) (Figure 2B). The most studied species was Tetragonula biroi, which appeared in 21% of the publications, followed by Heterotrigona itama at 17%, Trigona sp. at 14%, and the neotropical species Scaptotrigona postica, also at 14%. Both T. biroi and H. itama are the most popular ‘kelulut’ bees in Southeast Asia; consequently, their bioproducts are the most widely studied. The same occurred with the ‘mandaguari’ bee (S. postica) whose honey is highly appreciated in Brazil. Mexico has a significant biocultural connection with at least 19 species of stingless bees [28], which, according to this review, is slightly larger than those studied in Malaysia. In Mexico, two culturally relevant species stand out: the Mayan sacred bee (Melipona beecheei), known in the Mayan language as ‘xunan kaab’, and the Mexican robust-stingless bee (Scaptotrigona mexicana), referred to as ‘kwiktaxkát’ by the Totonac people of Veracruz and ‘psilnekmej’ by the Nahua people from Puebla. The bioproducts derived from these Mexican species are highly esteemed for their empirically recognized medicinal properties, to the extent that 1 L of honey can cost as much as USD 100.00. This economic strength is backed by recent evidence suggesting that the bioactivity of bioproducts produced by Scaptotrigona species [51] is comparable to the biomedical potential of ‘kelulut’ bee bioproducts [52,53]. Furthermore, none of the species reported in this review (Appendix A) appear on the Red List of Threatened Species [54].

3.3. The Potential of Stingless Bee Bioproducts to Treat Leading Morbidities in Mexico

The review results confirm that stingless bee bioproducts may aid in treating nearly 50% (8 out of 19) of the most common morbidities in Mexico (Figure 3). More studies have concentrated on the therapeutic potential of propolis (60%) compared to honey (40%) (Appendix A). All eight countries were engaged in studying cancer (Appendix A). Cancer was also the most investigated, accounting for 55% of the selected references, primarily focusing on propolis (38%) rather than honey (16%) (Figure 3). This was followed by type-2 diabetes (15%), obesity (9%), and COVID-19 (7%) (Figure 3). Morbidities such as obesity and arterial hypertension appeared in more studies involving honey than propolis (Figure 3), while acute respiratory infection and depression were examined solely with honey (Figure 3). All the selected references reported beneficial therapeutic effects of stingless bee bioproducts. Although we did not find research conducted in Mexico, the evidence suggests that consuming stingless bee bioproducts is a viable alternative to prevent or aid in treating some of the most common diseases in the country, which are coincidentally among the leading causes of mortality worldwide.

Figure 3. The proportion of research conducted on propolis (brown) and honey (yellow), along with their correlation to the most reported morbidities in Mexico as of 2023 by the Ministry of Health [33]. Morbidities follow the same order as that presented in Appendix A.

Figure 3. The proportion of research conducted on propolis (brown) and honey (yellow), along with their correlation to the most reported morbidities in Mexico as of 2023 by the Ministry of Health [33]. Morbidities follow the same order as that presented in Appendix A.

In Mexico, people living in culturally and biologically diverse areas such as the Yucatan Peninsula and the Totonacapan Region still practice meliponiculture. In Veracruz’s Totonacapan, the Totonac meliponiculture of the Scaptotrigona mexicana stingless bee, called ‘kwiktaxkát’ in Totonac, is traditionally managed in clay pots (a), wooden boxes (b), and bamboo stems (c) and continues to provide medicine to the people of Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Types of traditional hives used in Totonac meliponiculture in Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico include clay pots (a), wooden boxes (b), and bamboo stems (c). Photos by Guillermo Vázquez-Domínguez.

Figure 4. Types of traditional hives used in Totonac meliponiculture in Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico include clay pots (a), wooden boxes (b), and bamboo stems (c). Photos by Guillermo Vázquez-Domínguez.

3.4. People’s Experiences and Perceptions on the Therapeutic Uses of Stingless Bee Bioproducts from the Field

The findings from the presented scientific synthesis were reinforced with the perceptions of Totonac Indigenous key informants. The participants in our study are well respected for their knowledge and leadership in various themes related to agricultural production, the local culture, and, especially, stingless bees’ cultivation. They recognize the importance of bee bioproducts for different illnesses and use them frequently. Access to healthcare is limited; therefore, it is still common for people living in rural areas to turn to traditional medicine, mainly plants. However, stingless bees are highly valued in the Totonacapan Region. Many Totonac families can heal themselves and others due to their deep ecological and traditional medical knowledges. Below are some experiences shared with us by two Totonac campesinos from Primero de Mayo, a locality from Papantla de Olarte municipality, Veracruz, México.

Stingless beekeepers from Veracruz’ Totonacapan explained how they consume native honey, propolis, and pollen to prevent and treat illnesses like gastritis, bloating, and skin burns. Don Beremundo is seventy-eight years old. He is one of the oldest beekeepers interviewed. He likes to make elaborate art-crafts with vanilla beans and cultivates traditional vanilla. Don Beremundo recalls the guidance they received from a researcher who used to visit them often and made an impact with her knowledge, her work ethics, and her clear aim to prioritize people and bees’ wellbeing, over an economistic view of beekeeping. She passed away during the pandemic, but her legacy goes on (Quote no 1). The following lines are from an interview on 26 October 2024, in a small community from Papantla, with Totonac brothers Don Beremundo (78 yrs old) and Don Obdulio, who is in his mid-fifties. They gladly shared coffee and cookies while we chatted in Don Obdulio’s kitchen about what meliponiculture means for them. We decided to leave the original Spanish quotes and add the translation under each one:

1. La idea que traía la maestra, que a mí se me quedó, y siempre lo he dicho con toda la gente que nos visita, la idea de la maestra no era hacer negocio con las abejas, no era hacer montones de cajas para negocio, la idea era conservar, la conservación que yo tuviera, que se interesara aquél, poquitos [cajas] pero era la conservación, no hacer negocio, y a mí me gustaba (Don Beremundo, 78 yrs old).

Translation 1: The idea she [the teacher] had, which I adopted and have always shared with everyone that visits us, was not to do business with the bees, it was not to keep loads of boxes for business, the idea was to conserve, it was conservation, not profit, and I liked it.

2. Las abejitas nos conocen, conocen a la gente, si llega un extraño, más si llega a traer perfume o algo, la detectan rápido y no pueden casi [acercarse]. Las abejas reconocen (Don Beremundo, 78 yrs old).

Translation 2: The little bees get to know us, they know people. If a stranger comes, and he has perfume, they quickly detect it, and he cannot get close to them. Bees recognize people.

3. Si uno tiene problemas en la casa, no lo deja a uno. En mi caso no hay problema [risas]. Entonces, se toma en cuenta todo eso, porque pues son ¿cómo se dice? conocimientos que uno tiene que entender, de entenderlas a ellas, cuáles son sus reacciones. Y yo como digo, yo trabajo sin nada, pero vamos a ir aprendiendo con la demás gente, mis experiencias son mías, las de los demás son otras, y a lo mejor vamos a unificar las mismas ideas (Don Beremundo, 78 yrs old).

Translation 3: If one has problems at home, they do not let you get close. In my house there are no problems [laughs]. So, you must consider all that, because these are knowledges that one must understand, you need to understand them and their reactions. And like I say, I work with nothing, but we keep learning with other people, my experiences are mine, others have their experiences, and maybe we can unify the same ideas.

4. El propóleo es para cuando se esponja uno del estómago. Nosotros lo ocupamos mucho para eso, tomar las gotitas, 20 en un vaso de agua. Desintoxica todo el estómago. Si, hemos tenido ese tipo de experiencias y lo ocupamos (Don Obdulio, 55 years old).

Translation 4: Propolis is for when your stomach swells. We use it a lot for that, you take 20 drops in a glass of water, it detoxifies the stomach. Yes, we have had this type of experience, and we use it.

5. He tenido experiencias vivas, de cómo cura la miel, y ahorita del producto, el polen. Se lo doy a mi familia, a mi esposa, todos los días ella se lo come así, porque no quiere miel. Y el niño, una bolita de polen, un poquito de miel, yo también todos los días, hemos tenido resultados en cuanto a que las bolitas esas, pues son medicina. Tienen muchas propiedades para curar el cuerpo.

Translation 5: I have had live experiences of how honey cures, and now, pollen. I give it to my family, to my wife every day, because she eats it like that, and she does not want honey. The boy takes a little ball of pollen and a little honey. I have a little honey everyday too, we have had results, because these little balls are medicine, they have many properties to health the body.

6. Una vez mi esposa se quemó. Se echó las guías de calabaza bien calientes, se quemó acá, en el estómago, y las piernas, bien quemadas. Cuando llegué, mi sobrina le había echado clara de huevo. Dije, ¡qué bueno que no te pusieron agua! Ya la estuve curando con pura miel, no fue ni al doctor, no salimos nunca, porque dicen que las quemadas se infectan bien rápido y hay que salir inmediatamente a ver al doctor. Con pura miel la estuve manteniendo, se curó totalmente, casi cicatrices no le quedaron, ni un antibiótico ni medicina, no fue miel de colmena, fue de enjambre (Don Obdulio, 55 yrs old).

Translation 6: My wife once got burned. She spilled boiling water from squashes, and she burned her stomach and legs. When I arrived, my niece had covered her burns with egg whites. I said, it is good that they did not use water! I cured her only with honey, she did not go to the doctor, not once. They say that skin burns can be infected fast, and you must run to the doctor immediately. I kept her just with honey. She healed completely, with almost no scars, not a single antibiotic or medicine. It was not native, but swarm honey (Apis mellifera).

The above extracts tell a story (Quotes 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Don Beremundo and Don Obdulio know about the healing properties of stingless bee products through experience. Additionally, they convey emotions that reveal a close relationship with bees and express values like collaboration, respect, and reciprocity (with bees and with people). They also helped us understand that traditional medicinal (ecological) knowledge is closely tied to family wellbeing.

Few studies in Latin America explore the various dimensions of the relationship between people and native bees. Some topics are—understanding people’s emotions toward bees [55], their ecological role in agrobiodiversity conservation [56] and in conservation [57,58,59], and their use as medicine by Indigenous people [60,61]. Nevertheless, it should be said that there has been a meliponiculture boom over the past decade with serious implications, particularly in Mexico’s context. Most of them are key information gaps that should be addressed in the policy, academic, and environmental education arenas [62]. This takes the discussion toward the strategic role of transdisciplinary research initiatives that see traditional ecological knowledge as a starting point to engage in collective, collaborative learning processes, and for this to happen, researchers should recognize and overcome epistemological, political, and financial constraints [63].

4. Conclusions and Final Thoughts

Mexico is a notable example where locally based health systems can be strengthened. Like many other countries, Mexico loses just over two hundred thousand hectares of forest each year. No stingless bee species are listed in the Official Mexican Standard (NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010) animal and plant species risk categories [64]. Time is running out if research is to understand the conservation status of bee populations in a country home to nearly 10% of the world’s species’ wealth. These evidences should be accounted for, and research and policy actions should be strengthened with landscape planning decisions focused on the quality of the agricultural matrix through agroecologically sound management approaches.

Research on the therapeutic properties of Mexican stingless bee honey and propolis is limited. In contrast, extensive evidence from Asian countries, especially Indonesia, regarding the beneficial effects of propolis on cancer and other diseases presents new opportunities for medical research in meliponiculture. The international demand may have fueled this research interest; however, caution is advised. The policy agenda should prioritize the health needs, aspirations, and socio-ecological contexts of local communities.

Before scaling-up over the counter medicinal stingless bee products, traditional meliponiculture should be strengthened and encouraged. The baseline ought to help maintain ecological knowledge and the overall health of people. More studies are needed on strategic issues, particularly those identified by meliponicultors and health professionals. On the research front, some relevant lines of enquiry can be found in the study of ecological processes that sustain ecosystem integrity; for instance, forest succession and plant diversity play a crucial role as the primary sources of propolis, honey, and pollen that bees store to feed and protect themselves from parasites or diseases. Another area of study that requires further development is understanding the ecological dynamics within stingless bee hives, as they can offer critical insights into the surrounding environment conditions. This information can aid ecological restoration plans that will help protect the remaining forest fragments.

Biocultural landscapes are relational spaces built upon a network of relationships and social connections between human and non-human beings. Knowledge will only be useful if academia embraces radical change to contribute with innovative and creative alternatives through epistemological and methodological pluralism. Co-produced science should be redirected toward environmental governance frameworks rooted in human rights to ensure good health and a healthy environment. Scientists and the government must collaborate and support long-term transdisciplinary research in closely related fields, such as poverty, human health, ecological restoration, and conservation.