Sensors

40 pages, 3504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison between Different Error Modeling of MEMS Applied to GPS/INS Integrated Systems

by Alex G. Quinchia^1,*, Gianluca Falco²

, Emanuela Falletti²

, Fabio Dovis² and Carles Ferrer^1,3

¹ Departament de Microelectrònica i Sistemes Electrònics, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (IEEC-UAB), Bellaterra, Barcelona 08193, Spain

² Institut Politecnico di Torino and Istituto Superiore Mario Boella, via Pier Carlo Boggio 61, Turin 10138, Italy

³ Institut de Microelectr'onica de Barcelona (CNM, CSIC), UAB, Barcelona 08193, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9549-9588; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809549 - 24 Jul 2013

Cited by 179 | Viewed by 18735

Abstract

Advances in the development of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) have made possible the fabrication of cheap and small dimension accelerometers and gyroscopes, which are being used in many applications where the global positioning system (GPS) and the inertial navigation system (INS) integration is carried [...] Read more.

Advances in the development of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) have made possible the fabrication of cheap and small dimension accelerometers and gyroscopes, which are being used in many applications where the global positioning system (GPS) and the inertial navigation system (INS) integration is carried out, i.e., identifying track defects, terrestrial and pedestrian navigation, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), stabilization of many platforms, etc. Although these MEMS sensors are low-cost, they present different errors, which degrade the accuracy of the navigation systems in a short period of time. Therefore, a suitable modeling of these errors is necessary in order to minimize them and, consequently, improve the system performance. In this work, the most used techniques currently to analyze the stochastic errors that affect these sensors are shown and compared: we examine in detail the autocorrelation, the Allan variance (AV) and the power spectral density (PSD) techniques. Subsequently, an analysis and modeling of the inertial sensors, which combines autoregressive (AR) filters and wavelet de-noising, is also achieved. Since a low-cost INS (MEMS grade) presents error sources with short-term (high-frequency) and long-term (low-frequency) components, we introduce a method that compensates for these error terms by doing a complete analysis of Allan variance, wavelet de-nosing and the selection of the level of decomposition for a suitable combination between these techniques. Eventually, in order to assess the stochastic models obtained with these techniques, the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) of a loosely-coupled GPS/INS integration strategy is augmented with different states. Results show a comparison between the proposed method and the traditional sensor error models under GPS signal blockages using real data collected in urban roadways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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15 pages, 649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Advanced Temporal Credential-Based Security Scheme with Mutual Authentication and Key Agreement for Wireless Sensor Networks

by Chun-Ta Li¹

, Chi-Yao Weng² and Cheng-Chi Lee^3,4,*

¹ Department of Information Management, Tainan University of Technology, 529 Zhongzheng Road, Tainan City 71002, Taiwan

² Department of Computer Science, National Tsing Hua University, 101 Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu City 30013, Taiwan

³ Department of Library and Information Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, 510 Jhongjheng Road, Sinjhuang Dist., New Taipei City 24205, Taiwan

⁴ Department of Photonics and Communication Engineering, Asia University, 500 Lioufeng Road, Taichung City 41354, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9589-9603; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809589 - 24 Jul 2013

Cited by 131 | Viewed by 7695

Abstract

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) can be quickly and randomly deployed in any harsh and unattended environment and only authorized users are allowed to access reliable sensor nodes in WSNs with the aid of gateways (GWNs). Secure authentication models among the users, the sensor [...] Read more.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) can be quickly and randomly deployed in any harsh and unattended environment and only authorized users are allowed to access reliable sensor nodes in WSNs with the aid of gateways (GWNs). Secure authentication models among the users, the sensor nodes and GWN are important research issues for ensuring communication security and data privacy in WSNs. In 2013, Xue et al. proposed a temporal-credential-based mutual authentication and key agreement scheme for WSNs. However, in this paper, we point out that Xue et al.’s scheme cannot resist stolen-verifier, insider, off-line password guessing, smart card lost problem and many logged-in users’ attacks and these security weaknesses make the scheme inapplicable to practical WSN applications. To tackle these problems, we suggest a simple countermeasure to prevent proposed attacks while the other merits of Xue et al.’s authentication scheme are left unchanged. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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20 pages, 645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Power Analog Processing for Sensing Applications: Low-Frequency Harmonic Signal Classification

by Daniel J. White^1,*, Peter E. William², Michael W. Hoffman¹ and Sina Balkir¹

¹ Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588 0511, USA

² Phillips Healthcare, 1 Echo Drive, Reedsville, PA 17084, USA

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9604-9623; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809604 - 25 Jul 2013

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7021

Abstract

A low-power analog sensor front-end is described that reduces the energy required to extract environmental sensing spectral features without using Fast Fouri´er Transform (FFT) or wavelet transforms. An Analog Harmonic Transform (AHT) allows selection of only the features needed by the back-end, in [...] Read more.

A low-power analog sensor front-end is described that reduces the energy required to extract environmental sensing spectral features without using Fast Fouri´er Transform (FFT) or wavelet transforms. An Analog Harmonic Transform (AHT) allows selection of only the features needed by the back-end, in contrast to the FFT, where all coefficients must be calculated simultaneously. We also show that the FFT coefficients can be easily calculated from the AHT results by a simple back-substitution. The scheme is tailored for low-power, parallel analog implementation in an integrated circuit (IC). Two different applications are tested with an ideal front-end model and compared to existing studies with the same data sets. Results from the military vehicle classification and identification of machine-bearing fault applications shows that the front-end suits a wide range of harmonic signal sources. Analog-related errors are modeled to evaluate the feasibility of and to set design parameters for an IC implementation to maintain good system-level performance. Design of a preliminary transistor-level integrator circuit in a 0:µm complementary metal-oxide-silicon (CMOS) integrated circuit process showed the ability to use online self-calibration to reduce fabrication errors to a sufficiently low level. Estimated power dissipation is about three orders of magnitude less than similar vehicle classification systems that use commercially available FFT spectral extraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 1041 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ultra-High Element Density pMUT Array with Low Crosstalk for 3-D Medical Imaging

by Yi Yang^1,2, He Tian^1,2, Yu-Feng Wang^1,2, Yi Shu^1,2, Chang-Jian Zhou^1,2, Hui Sun^1,2, Cang-Hai Zhang^1,2, Hao Chen^1,2 and Tian-Ling Ren^1,2,*

¹ Institute of Microelectronics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

² Tsinghua National Laboratory for Information Science and Technology (TNList), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9624-9634; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809624 - 26 Jul 2013

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 12592

Abstract

A ~1 MHz piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (pMUT) array with ultra-high element density and low crosstalk is proposed for the first time. This novel pMUT array is based on a nano-layer spin-coating lead zirconium titanium film technique and can be fabricated with high [...] Read more.

A ~1 MHz piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (pMUT) array with ultra-high element density and low crosstalk is proposed for the first time. This novel pMUT array is based on a nano-layer spin-coating lead zirconium titanium film technique and can be fabricated with high element density using a relatively simple process. Accordingly, key fabrication processes such as thick piezoelectric film deposition, low-stress Si-SOI bonding and bulk silicon removal have been successfully developed. The novel fine-pitch 6 × 6 pMUT arrays can all work at the desired frequency (~1 MHz) with good uniformity, high performance and potential IC integration compatibility. The minimum interspace is ~20 μm, the smallest that has ever been achieved to the best of our knowledge. These arrays can be potentially used to steer ultrasound beams and implement high quality 3-D medical imaging applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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18 pages, 945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Infrastructure to Enable Lightweight Context-Awareness for Mobile Users

by Pablo Curiel^* and Ana B. Lago

Deusto Institute of Technology-DeustoTech, University of Deusto, Avda. Universidades 24, Bilbao 48007, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9635-9652; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809635 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6564

Abstract

Mobile phones enable us to carry out a wider range of tasks every day, and as a result they have become more ubiquitous than ever. However, they are still more limited in terms of processing power and interaction capabilities than traditional computers, and [...] Read more.

Mobile phones enable us to carry out a wider range of tasks every day, and as a result they have become more ubiquitous than ever. However, they are still more limited in terms of processing power and interaction capabilities than traditional computers, and the often distracting and time-constricted scenarios in which we use them do not help in alleviating these limitations. Context-awareness is a valuable technique to address these issues, as it enables to adapt application behaviour to each situation. In this paper we present a context management infrastructure for mobile environments, aimed at controlling context information life-cycle in this kind of scenarios, with the main goal of enabling application and services to adapt their behaviour to better meet end-user needs. This infrastructure relies on semantic technologies and open standards to improve interoperability, and is based on a central element, the context manager. This element acts as a central context repository and takes most of the computational burden derived from dealing with this kind of information, thus relieving from these tasks to more resource-scarce devices in the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2012 - the 6th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & 4th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2012))

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16 pages, 1045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrical Detection of C-Reactive Protein Using a Single Free-Standing, Thermally Controlled Piezoresistive Microcantilever for Highly Reproducible and Accurate Measurements

by Yi-Kuang Yen¹, Yu-Cheng Lai¹, Wei-Ting Hong¹, Yotsapoom Pheanpanitporn¹, Chuin-Shan Chen² and Long-Sun Huang^1,*

¹ Institute of Applied Mechanics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan

² Department of Civil Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9653-9668; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809653 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 8022

Abstract

This study demonstrates a novel method for electrical detection of C-reactive protein (CRP) as a means of identifying an infection in the body, or as a cardiovascular disease risk assay. The method uses a single free-standing, thermally controlled piezoresistive microcantilever biosensor. In a [...] Read more.

This study demonstrates a novel method for electrical detection of C-reactive protein (CRP) as a means of identifying an infection in the body, or as a cardiovascular disease risk assay. The method uses a single free-standing, thermally controlled piezoresistive microcantilever biosensor. In a commonly used sensing arrangement of conventional dual cantilevers in the Wheatstone bridge circuit, reference and gold-coated sensing cantilevers that inherently have heterogeneous surface materials and different multilayer structures may yield independent responses to the liquid environmental changes of chemical substances, flow field and temperature, leading to unwanted signal disturbance for biosensing targets. In this study, the single free-standing microcantilever for biosensing applications is employed to resolve the dual-beam problem of individual responses in chemical solutions and, in a thermally controlled system, to maintain its sensor performance due to the sensitive temperature effect. With this type of single temperature-controlled microcantilever sensor, the electrical detection of various CRP concentrations from 1 µg/mL to 200 µg/mL was performed, which covers the clinically relevant range. Induced surface stresses were measured at between 0.25 N/m and 3.4 N/m with high reproducibility. Moreover, the binding affinity (K_D) of CRP and anti-CRP interaction was found to be 18.83 ± 2.99 µg/mL, which agreed with results in previous reported studies. This biosensing technique thus proves valuable in detecting inflammation, and in cardiovascular disease risk assays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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10 pages, 484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Sensor Interrogation Using Wavelength-Swept Laser with a Polygon-Scanner-Based Wavelength Filter

by Yong Seok Kwon¹, Myeong Ock Ko¹, Mi Sun Jung¹, Ik Gon Park¹, Namje Kim², Sang-Pil Han², Han-Cheol Ryu³, Kyung Hyun Park² and Min Yong Jeon^1,*

¹ Department of Physics, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea

² THz Photonics Creative Research Center, ETRI, Daejeon 305-700, Korea

³ Department of Car-Mechatronics, Sahmyook University, Seoul 139-742, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9669-9678; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809669 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9116

Abstract

We report a high-speed (~2 kHz) dynamic multiplexed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor interrogation using a wavelength-swept laser (WSL) with a polygon-scanner-based wavelength filter. The scanning frequency of the WSL is 18 kHz, and the 10 dB scanning bandwidth is more than 90 [...] Read more.

We report a high-speed (~2 kHz) dynamic multiplexed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor interrogation using a wavelength-swept laser (WSL) with a polygon-scanner-based wavelength filter. The scanning frequency of the WSL is 18 kHz, and the 10 dB scanning bandwidth is more than 90 nm around a center wavelength of 1,540 nm. The output from the WSL is coupled into the multiplexed FBG array, which consists of five FBGs. The reflected Bragg wavelengths of the FBGs are 1,532.02 nm, 1,537.84 nm, 1,543.48 nm, 1,547.98 nm, and 1,553.06 nm, respectively. A dynamic periodic strain ranging from 500 Hz to 2 kHz is applied to one of the multiplexed FBGs, which is fixed on the stage of the piezoelectric transducer stack. Good dynamic performance of the FBGs and recording of their fast Fourier transform spectra have been successfully achieved with a measuring speed of 18 kHz. The signal-to-noise ratio and the bandwidth over the whole frequency span are determined to be more than 30 dB and around 10 Hz, respectively. We successfully obtained a real-time measurement of the abrupt change of the periodic strain. The dynamic FBG sensor interrogation system can be read out with a WSL for high-speed and high-sensitivity real-time measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optomechatronics)

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25 pages, 18296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wireless Prototype Based on Pressure and Bending Sensors for Measuring Gate Quality

by Florent Grenez¹, María Viqueira Villarejo², Begoña García Zapirain²

and Amaia Méndez Zorrilla^2,*

¹ Computer Science Department, ICAM University, 6 rue Auber-59000 Lille, France

² DeustoTech-Life Unit, Deusto Institute of Technology, University of Deusto, Avda. de las Universidades,24, Bilbao 48007, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9679-9703; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809679 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8468 | Correction

Abstract

This paper presents a technological solution based on sensors controlled remotely in order to monitor, track and evaluate the gait quality in people with or without associated pathology. Special hardware simulating a shoe was developed, which consists of three pressure sensors, two bending [...] Read more.

This paper presents a technological solution based on sensors controlled remotely in order to monitor, track and evaluate the gait quality in people with or without associated pathology. Special hardware simulating a shoe was developed, which consists of three pressure sensors, two bending sensors, an Arduino mini and a Bluetooth module. The obtained signals are digitally processed, calculating the standard deviation and establishing thresholds obtained empirically. A group of users was chosen with the aim of executing two modalities: natural walking and dragging the left foot. The gait was parameterized with the following variables: as far as pressure sensors are concerned, one pressure sensor under the first metatarsal (right sensor), another one under the fifth metatarsal (left) and a third one under the heel were placed. With respect to bending sensors, one bending sensor was placed for the ankle movement and another one for the foot sole. The obtained results show a rate accuracy oscillating between 85% (right sensor) and 100% (heel and bending sensors). Therefore, the developed prototype is able to differentiate between healthy gait and pathological gait, and it will be used as the base of a more complex and integral technological solution, which is being developed currently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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25 pages, 396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extending the IEEE 802.15.4 Security Suite with a Compact Implementation of the NIST P-192/B-163 Elliptic Curves

by Antonio De la Piedra^1,*, An Braeken² and Abdellah Touhafi¹

¹ Department of Electronics and Informatics (ETRO), Faculty of Engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, Brussels 1050, Belgium

² Erasmushogeschool Brussel, Nijverheidskaai 170, Brussels 1070, Belgium

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9704-9728; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809704 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6685

Abstract

Typically, commercial sensor nodes are equipped with MCUsclocked at a low-frequency (i.e., within the 4–12 MHz range). Consequently, executing cryptographic algorithms in those MCUs generally requires a huge amount of time. In this respect, the required energy consumption can be higher than using [...] Read more.

Typically, commercial sensor nodes are equipped with MCUsclocked at a low-frequency (i.e., within the 4–12 MHz range). Consequently, executing cryptographic algorithms in those MCUs generally requires a huge amount of time. In this respect, the required energy consumption can be higher than using a separate accelerator based on a Field-programmable Gate Array (FPGA) that is switched on when needed. In this manuscript, we present the design of a cryptographic accelerator suitable for an FPGA-based sensor node and compliant with the IEEE802.15.4 standard. All the embedded resources of the target platform (Xilinx Artix-7) have been maximized in order to provide a cost-effective solution. Moreover, we have added key negotiation capabilities to the IEEE 802.15.4 security suite based on Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). Our results suggest that tailored accelerators based on FPGA can behave better in terms of energy than contemporary software solutions for motes, such as the TinyECC and NanoECC libraries. In this regard, a point multiplication (PM) can be performed between 8.58- and 15.4-times faster, 3.40- to 23.59-times faster (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman, ECDH) and between 5.45- and 34.26-times faster (Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme, ECIES). Moreover, the energy consumption was also improved with a factor of 8.96 (PM). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 1418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multivariate Thermo-Hygrometric Characterisation of the Archaeological Site of Plaza de l’Almoina (Valencia, Spain) for Preventive Conservation

by Ángel Fernández-Navajas^1,†, Paloma Merello^1,2,†, Pedro Beltrán^1,† and Fernando-Juan García-Diego^1,3,*,†

¹ Departamento de Física Aplicada (U.D. Industriales), Universitat Politècnica de València, Av. de los Naranjos s/n, Valencia 46022, Spain

² Instituto Valenciano de Conservación y Restauración de Bienes Culturales (IVC+R), Complejo Socio-Educativo de Penyeta Roja s/n, Castellón 12080, Spain

³ Centro de Tecnologías Físicas, Unidad Asociada ICMM- CSIC/UPV, Universitat Politècnica de València, Av. de los Naranjos s/n, Valencia 46022, Spain

^† All authors contributed equally to this work.

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9729-9746; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809729 - 29 Jul 2013

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7154

Abstract

Preventive conservation requires monitoring and control of the parameters involved in the deterioration process, mainly temperature and relative humidity. It is important to characterise an archaeological site prior to carrying out comparative studies in the future for preventive conservation, either by regular studies [...] Read more.

Preventive conservation requires monitoring and control of the parameters involved in the deterioration process, mainly temperature and relative humidity. It is important to characterise an archaeological site prior to carrying out comparative studies in the future for preventive conservation, either by regular studies to verify whether the conditions are constant, or occasional ones when the boundary conditions are altered. There are numerous covered archaeological sites, but few preventive conservation works that give special attention to the type of cover installed. In particular, there is no background of microclimatic studies in sites that are in the ground and, as in the Plaza de l’Almoina (Valencia, Spain), are buried and partially covered by a transparent roof. A large effect of the transparent cover was found by the sensors located below this area, with substantial increases in temperature and a decrease in the relative humidity during the day. Surrounding zones also have values above the recommended temperature values. On the other hand, the influence of a buried water drainage line near the site is notable, causing an increase in relative humidity levels in the surrounding areas. Multivariate statistical analyses enabled us to characterise the microclimate of the archaeological site, allowing future testing to determine whether the conservation conditions have been altered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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27 pages, 2793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surveying and Monitoring for Vulnerability Assessment of an Ancient Building

by Luigi Fregonese^*, Gaia Barbieri, Luigi Biolzi, Massimiliano Bocciarelli, Aronne Frigeri and Laura Taffurelli

Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering, ABC, Politecnico di Milano, via Ponzio, Milano 31-20133, Italy

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9747-9773; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809747 - 31 Jul 2013

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 8424

Abstract

This paper examines how surveying and monitoring improve our knowledge about ancient buildings, allow the interpretation of their structural response and help in the search for the best solutions for their conservation. The case study of Palazzo del Capitano in Mantua (Italy) is [...] Read more.

This paper examines how surveying and monitoring improve our knowledge about ancient buildings, allow the interpretation of their structural response and help in the search for the best solutions for their conservation. The case study of Palazzo del Capitano in Mantua (Italy) is analyzed. In particular, the attention is focused on the use of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) for surveying and monitoring too, considering that the building structural control has been performed in combination with other traditional topographic techniques such as geometric leveling and topographic networks for 3D control based on measurements through total stations. The study of TLS monitoring has been tested only in the last decade and it is an innovative method for the detection of displacements of particular surfaces. Till now the research has focused only on the use of TLS monitoring to control large structures and in particular landscape situations; thus its use for a civil construction and historical buildings is a new field of investigation. Despite the fact technological development and new methodologies seem offer new future potential for the analysis of ancient buildings, currently there are still important limits for the application of the investigated surveying and monitoring techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 1239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Symbolic and Graphical Representation Scheme for Sensors Deployed in Large-Scale Structures

by Hyo Seon Park^1,2, Yunah Shin^1,2, Se Woon Choi² and Yousok Kim^2,*

¹ Department of Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, 134 Shinchon-dong, Seoul 110-732, Korea

² Center for Structural Health Care Technology in Buildings, Yonsei University, 134 Shinchon-dong, Seoul 110-732, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9774-9789; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809774 - 31 Jul 2013

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6566

Abstract

As wireless sensor network (WSN)-based structural health monitoring (SHM) systems are increasingly being employed in civil infrastructures and building structures, the management of large numbers of sensing devices and the large amount of data acquired from WSNs will become increasingly difficult unless systematic [...] Read more.

As wireless sensor network (WSN)-based structural health monitoring (SHM) systems are increasingly being employed in civil infrastructures and building structures, the management of large numbers of sensing devices and the large amount of data acquired from WSNs will become increasingly difficult unless systematic expressions of the sensor network are provided. This study introduces a practical WSN for SHM that consists of sensors, wireless sensor nodes, repeater nodes, master nodes, and monitoring servers. This study also proposes a symbolic and graphical representation scheme (SGRS) for this system, in which the communication relationships and respective location information of the distributed sensing components are expressed in a concise manner. The SGRS was applied to the proposed WSN, which is employed in an actual large-scale irregular structure in which three types of sensors (75 vibrating wire strain gauges, 10 inclinometers, and three laser displacement sensors) and customized wireless sensor nodes are installed. The application results demonstrate that prompt identification of sensing units and effective management of the distributed sensor network can be realized from the SGRS. The results also demonstrate the superiority of the SGRS over conventional expression methods in which a box diagram or tree diagram representing the ID of sensors and data loggers is used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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31 pages, 565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Primate Drum Kit: A System for Studying Acoustic Pattern Production by Non-Human Primates Using Acceleration and Strain Sensors

by Andrea Ravignani^1,*, Vicente Matellán Olivera²

, Bruno Gingras¹, Riccardo Hofer¹, Carlos Rodríguez Hernández², Ruth-Sophie Sonnweber¹ and W. Tecumseh Fitch¹

¹ Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse, 14, Vienna A-1090, Austria

² Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial e Informática, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9790-9820; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809790 - 31 Jul 2013

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 10771

Abstract

The possibility of achieving experimentally controlled, non-vocal acoustic production in non-human primates is a key step to enable the testing of a number of hypotheses on primate behavior and cognition. However, no device or solution is currently available, with the use of sensors [...] Read more.

The possibility of achieving experimentally controlled, non-vocal acoustic production in non-human primates is a key step to enable the testing of a number of hypotheses on primate behavior and cognition. However, no device or solution is currently available, with the use of sensors in non-human animals being almost exclusively devoted to applications in food industry and animal surveillance. Specifically, no device exists which simultaneously allows: (i) spontaneous production of sound or music by non-human animals via object manipulation, (ii) systematical recording of data sensed from these movements, (iii) the possibility to alter the acoustic feedback properties of the object using remote control. We present two prototypes we developed for application with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) which, while fulfilling the aforementioned requirements, allow to arbitrarily associate sounds to physical object movements. The prototypes differ in sensing technology, costs, intended use and construction requirements. One prototype uses four piezoelectric elements embedded between layers of Plexiglas and foam. Strain data is sent to a computer running Python through an Arduino board. A second prototype consists in a modified Wii Remote contained in a gum toy. Acceleration data is sent via Bluetooth to a computer running Max/MSP. We successfully pilot tested the first device with a group of chimpanzees. We foresee using these devices for a range of cognitive experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 696 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of External Forces in Alpine Skiing Using a Differential Global Navigation Satellite System

by Matthias Gilgien^1,*, Jörg Spörri²

, Julien Chardonnens³, Josef Kröll² and Erich Müller²

¹ Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Sognsveien 220, Oslo 0806, Norway

² Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, University of Salzburg, Schlossallee 49, Hallein/Rif 5400, Austria

³ Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 11, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9821-9835; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809821 - 2 Aug 2013

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 11826

Abstract

In alpine ski racing the relationships between skier kinetics and kinematics and their effect on performance and injury-related aspects are not well understood. There is currently no validated system to determine all external forces simultaneously acting on skiers, particularly under race conditions and [...] Read more.

In alpine ski racing the relationships between skier kinetics and kinematics and their effect on performance and injury-related aspects are not well understood. There is currently no validated system to determine all external forces simultaneously acting on skiers, particularly under race conditions and throughout entire races. To address the problem, this study proposes and assesses a method for determining skier kinetics with a single lightweight differential global navigation satellite system (dGNSS). The dGNSS kinetic method was compared to a reference system for six skiers and two turns each. The pattern differences obtained between the measurement systems (offset ± SD) were −26 ± 152 N for the ground reaction force, 1 ± 96 N for ski friction and −6 ± 6 N for the air drag force. The differences between turn means were small. The error pattern within the dGNSS kinetic method was highly repeatable and precision was therefore good (SD within system: 63 N ground reaction force, 42 N friction force and 7 N air drag force) allowing instantaneous relative comparisons and identification of discriminative meaningful changes. The method is therefore highly valid in assessing relative differences between skiers in the same turn, as well as turn means between different turns. The system is suitable to measure large capture volumes under race conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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24 pages, 1687 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Indoor Inertial Pedestrian Navigation Using a Shoe-Worn Marker

by Mitja Placer^1,* and Stanislav Kovačič²

¹ Harpha Sea, Čevljarska Ulica 8, Koper 6000, Slovenia

² Fakulteta za Elektrotehniko, Univerza v Ljubljani, Tržaška 25, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9836-9859; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809836 - 2 Aug 2013

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 9976

Abstract

We propose a novel hybrid inertial sensors-based indoor pedestrian dead reckoning system, aided by computer vision-derived position measurements. In contrast to prior vision-based or vision-aided solutions, where environmental markers were used—either deployed in known positions or extracted directly from it—we use a shoe-fixed [...] Read more.

We propose a novel hybrid inertial sensors-based indoor pedestrian dead reckoning system, aided by computer vision-derived position measurements. In contrast to prior vision-based or vision-aided solutions, where environmental markers were used—either deployed in known positions or extracted directly from it—we use a shoe-fixed marker, which serves as positional reference to an opposite shoe-mounted camera during foot swing, making our system self-contained. Position measurements can be therefore more reliably fed to a complementary unscented Kalman filter, enhancing the accuracy of the estimated travelled path for 78%, compared to using solely zero velocities as pseudo-measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Survey on Temperature-Aware Routing Protocols in Wireless Body Sensor Networks

by Christian Henry Wijaya Oey and Sangman Moh^*

Department of Computer Engineering, Chosun University, 375 Seoseok-dong, Gwangju 501-759, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9860-9877; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809860 - 2 Aug 2013

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 7582

Abstract

The rapid growth of the elderly population in the world and the rising cost of healthcare impose big issues for healthcare and medical monitoring. A Wireless Body Sensor Network (WBSN) is comprised of small sensor nodes attached inside, on or around a human [...] Read more.

The rapid growth of the elderly population in the world and the rising cost of healthcare impose big issues for healthcare and medical monitoring. A Wireless Body Sensor Network (WBSN) is comprised of small sensor nodes attached inside, on or around a human body, the main purpose of which is to monitor the functions and surroundings of the human body. However, the heat generated by the node’s circuitry and antenna could cause damage to the human tissue. Therefore, in designing a routing protocol for WBSNs, it is important to reduce the heat by incorporating temperature into the routing metric. The main contribution of this paper is to survey existing temperature-aware routing protocols that have been proposed for WBSNs. In this paper, we present a brief overview of WBSNs, review the existing routing protocols comparatively and discuss challenging open issues in the design of routing protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 982 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Single-Chip Fully Integrated Direct-Modulation CMOS RF Transmitters for Short-Range Wireless Applications

by Munir M. El-Desouki^1,*, Syed Manzoor Qasim¹

, Mohammed BenSaleh¹ and M. Jamal Deen²

¹ King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia

² Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9878-9895; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809878 - 2 Aug 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8910

Abstract

Ultra-low power radio frequency (RF) transceivers used in short-range application such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs) require efficient, reliable and fully integrated transmitter architectures with minimal building blocks. This paper presents the design, implementation and performance evaluation of single-chip, fully integrated 2.4 GHz [...] Read more.

Ultra-low power radio frequency (RF) transceivers used in short-range application such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs) require efficient, reliable and fully integrated transmitter architectures with minimal building blocks. This paper presents the design, implementation and performance evaluation of single-chip, fully integrated 2.4 GHz and 433 MHz RF transmitters using direct-modulation power voltage-controlled oscillators (PVCOs) in addition to a 2.0 GHz phase-locked loop (PLL) based transmitter. All three RF transmitters have been fabricated in a standard mixed-signal CMOS 0.18 µm technology. Measurement results of the 2.4 GHz transmitter show an improvement in drain efficiency from 27% to 36%. The 2.4 GHz and 433 MHz transmitters deliver an output power of 8 dBm with a phase noise of −122 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz offset, while drawing 15.4 mA of current and an output power of 6.5 dBm with a phase noise of −120 dBc/Hz at 1 MHz offset, while drawing 20.8 mA of current from 1.5 V power supplies, respectively. The PLL transmitter delivers an output power of 9 mW with a locking range of 128 MHz and consumes 26 mA from 1.8 V power supply. The experimental results demonstrate that the RF transmitters can be efficiently used in low power WSN applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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13 pages, 501 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Wireless Passive Pressure Microsensor Fabricated in HTCC MEMS Technology for Harsh Environments

by Qiulin Tan^1,2, Hao Kang^1,2, Jijun Xiong^1,2,*, Li Qin^1,2, Wendong Zhang^1,2

, Chen Li^1,2, Liqiong Ding^1,2, Xiansheng Zhang^1,2 and Mingliang Yang^1,2

¹ Key Laboratory of Instrumentation Science & Dynamic Measurement, Ministry of Education, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China

² Science and Technology on Electronic Test & Measurement Laboratory, North University of China, Taiyuan 030051, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9896-9908; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809896 - 2 Aug 2013

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 9534

Abstract

A wireless passive high-temperature pressure sensor without evacuation channel fabricated in high-temperature co-fired ceramics (HTCC) technology is proposed. The properties of the HTCC material ensure the sensor can be applied in harsh environments. The sensor without evacuation channel can be completely gastight. The [...] Read more.

A wireless passive high-temperature pressure sensor without evacuation channel fabricated in high-temperature co-fired ceramics (HTCC) technology is proposed. The properties of the HTCC material ensure the sensor can be applied in harsh environments. The sensor without evacuation channel can be completely gastight. The wireless data is obtained with a reader antenna by mutual inductance coupling. Experimental systems are designed to obtain the frequency-pressure characteristic, frequency-temperature characteristic and coupling distance. Experimental results show that the sensor can be coupled with an antenna at 600 °C and max distance of 2.8 cm at room temperature. The senor sensitivity is about 860 Hz/bar and hysteresis error and repeatability error are quite low. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Harsh-Environment Applications)

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12 pages, 497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Strain-Based Load Identification Model for Beams in Building Structures

by Kappyo Hong, Jihoon Lee, Se Woon Choi, Yousok Kim and Hyo Seon Park^*

Department of Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seoul 120-749, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9909-9920; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809909 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7572

Abstract

A strain-based load identification model for beam structures subjected to multiple loads is presented. The number of sensors for the load identification model is the same as the number of load conditions acting on a beam structure. In the model, the contribution of [...] Read more.

A strain-based load identification model for beam structures subjected to multiple loads is presented. The number of sensors for the load identification model is the same as the number of load conditions acting on a beam structure. In the model, the contribution of each load to the strains measured by strain sensors is defined. In this paper, the longitudinal strains measured from multiplexed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensors are used in the load identification. To avoid the dependency on the selection of locations for FBG sensors installed on a beam structure, the measured strain is expressed by a general form of a strain sensing model defined by superimposing the distribution shapes for strains from multiple loads. Numerical simulation is conducted to verify the model. Then, the load identification model is applied to monitoring of applied loads on a 4 m-long steel beam subjected to two concentrated loads. In the experiment, seven FBG sensors and nine electrical strain gages (ESGs) were installed on the surface of the bottom flange. The experimental results indicate a good agreement between estimated loadings from the model and the loads applied by a hydraulic jack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Phenomenological Model for the Photocurrent Transient Relaxation Observed in ZnO-Based Photodetector Devices

by James C. Moore^* and Cody V. Thompson

Department of Chemistry and Physics, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, SC 29528, USA

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9921-9940; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809921 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 101 | Viewed by 10422

Abstract

We present a phenomenological model for the photocurrent transient relaxation observed in ZnO-based metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) planar photodetector devices based on time-resolved surface band bending. Surface band bending decreases during illumination, due to migration of photogenerated holes to the surface. Immediately after turning off [...] Read more.

We present a phenomenological model for the photocurrent transient relaxation observed in ZnO-based metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) planar photodetector devices based on time-resolved surface band bending. Surface band bending decreases during illumination, due to migration of photogenerated holes to the surface. Immediately after turning off illumination, conduction-band electrons must overcome a relatively low energy barrier to recombine with photogenerated holes at the surface; however, with increasing time, the adsorption of oxygen at the surface or electron trapping in the depletion region increases band bending, resulting in an increased bulk/surface energy barrier that slows the transport of photogenerated electrons. We present a complex rate equation based on thermionic transition of charge carriers to and from the surface and numerically fit this model to transient photocurrent measurements of several MSM planar ZnO photodetectors at variable temperature. Fitting parameters are found to be consistent with measured values in the literature. An understanding of the mechanism for persistent photoconductivity could lead to mitigation in future device applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photodetectors)

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25 pages, 1024 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Inexpensive Method for Kinematic Calibration of a Parallel Robot by Using One Hand-Held Camera as Main Sensor

by Alberto Traslosheros¹, José María Sebastián^2,*

, Jesús Torrijos², Ricardo Carelli³ and Eduardo Castillo⁴

¹ Postgrado, Universidad Aeronáutica de Querétaro, Carretera Estatal 200, Tequisquiapan 22154, 76270 Colón, Mexico

² CAR-UPM-CSIC, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, c/José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain

³ Instituto de Automática, Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Av. San Martín Oeste 1109, 5400 San Juan, Argentina

⁴ Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CICATA, México, Department of Mechatronics, Cerro Blanco 141, 76090 Querétaro, Mexico

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9941-9965; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809941 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 9615

Abstract

This paper presents a novel method for the calibration of a parallel robot, which allows a more accurate configuration instead of a configuration based on nominal parameters. It is used, as the main sensor with one camera installed in the robot hand that [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel method for the calibration of a parallel robot, which allows a more accurate configuration instead of a configuration based on nominal parameters. It is used, as the main sensor with one camera installed in the robot hand that determines the relative position of the robot with respect to a spherical object fixed in the working area of the robot. The positions of the end effector are related to the incremental positions of resolvers of the robot motors. A kinematic model of the robot is used to find a new group of parameters, which minimizes errors in the kinematic equations. Additionally, properties of the spherical object and intrinsic camera parameters are utilized to model the projection of the object in the image and thereby improve spatial measurements. Finally, several working tests, static and tracking tests are executed in order to verify how the robotic system behaviour improves by using calibrated parameters against nominal parameters. In order to emphasize that, this proposed new method uses neither external nor expensive sensor. That is why new robots are useful in teaching and research activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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33 pages, 1346 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sudden Event Recognition: A Survey

by Nor Surayahani Suriani, Aini Hussain^* and Mohd Asyraf Zulkifley

Smart Engineering System Research Group, Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9966-9998; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809966 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 9694

Abstract

Event recognition is one of the most active research areas in video surveillance fields. Advancement in event recognition systems mainly aims to provide convenience, safety and an efficient lifestyle for humanity. A precise, accurate and robust approach is necessary to enable event recognition [...] Read more.

Event recognition is one of the most active research areas in video surveillance fields. Advancement in event recognition systems mainly aims to provide convenience, safety and an efficient lifestyle for humanity. A precise, accurate and robust approach is necessary to enable event recognition systems to respond to sudden changes in various uncontrolled environments, such as the case of an emergency, physical threat and a fire or bomb alert. The performance of sudden event recognition systems depends heavily on the accuracy of low level processing, like detection, recognition, tracking and machine learning algorithms. This survey aims to detect and characterize a sudden event, which is a subset of an abnormal event in several video surveillance applications. This paper discusses the following in detail: (1) the importance of a sudden event over a general anomalous event; (2) frameworks used in sudden event recognition; (3) the requirements and comparative studies of a sudden event recognition system and (4) various decision-making approaches for sudden event recognition. The advantages and drawbacks of using 3D images from multiple cameras for real-time application are also discussed. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research directions in sudden event recognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time N₂O Gas Detection System for Agricultural Production Using a 4.6-µm-Band Laser Source Based on a Periodically Poled LiNbO₃ Ridge Waveguide

by Akio Tokura^1,*, Masaki Asobe^1,†, Koji Enbutsu¹, Toshihiro Yoshihara², Shin-nosuke Hashida² and Hirokazu Takenouchi¹

¹ NTT Photonics Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, 3-1, Morinosato Wakamiya, Atsugi-shi, Kanagawa Pref. 243-0198, Japan

² Environmental Science Research Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, 1646 Abiko, Abiko-shi, Chiba Pref. 270-1194, Japan

^† Current address: Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Tokai University, 4-1-1 Kitakaname, Hiratsuka-shi, Kanagawa Pref. 259-1292, Japan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 9999-10013; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130809999 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7625

Abstract

This article describes a gas monitoring system for detecting nitrous oxide (N₂O) gas using a compact mid-infrared laser source based on difference-frequency generation in a quasi-phase-matched LiNbO₃ waveguide. We obtained a stable output power of 0.62 mW from a 4.6-μm-band [...] Read more.

This article describes a gas monitoring system for detecting nitrous oxide (N₂O) gas using a compact mid-infrared laser source based on difference-frequency generation in a quasi-phase-matched LiNbO₃ waveguide. We obtained a stable output power of 0.62 mW from a 4.6-μm-band continuous-wave laser source operating at room temperature. This laser source enabled us to detect atmospheric N₂O gas at a concentration as low as 35 parts per billion. Using this laser source, we constructed a new real-time in-situ monitoring system for detecting N₂O gas emitted from potted plants. A few weeks of monitoring with the developed detection system revealed a strong relationship between nitrogen fertilization and N₂O emission. This system is promising for the in-situ long-term monitoring of N₂O in agricultural production, and it is also applicable to the detection of other greenhouse gases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors - 2013)

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13 pages, 516 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Amperometric Biosensor Utilizing a Ferrocene-Mediated Horseradish Peroxidase Reaction for the Determination of Capsaicin (Chili Hotness)

by Rosmawani Mohammad, Musa Ahmad and Lee Yook Heng^*

School of Chemical Sciences and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10014-10026; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810014 - 5 Aug 2013

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9472

Abstract

Chili hotness is very much dependent on the concentration of capsaicin present in the chili fruit. A new biosensor based on a horseradish peroxidase enzyme-capsaicin reaction mediated by ferrocene has been successfully developed for the amperometric determination of chili hotness. The amperometric biosensor [...] Read more.

Chili hotness is very much dependent on the concentration of capsaicin present in the chili fruit. A new biosensor based on a horseradish peroxidase enzyme-capsaicin reaction mediated by ferrocene has been successfully developed for the amperometric determination of chili hotness. The amperometric biosensor is fabricated based on a single-step immobilization of both ferrocene and horseradish peroxidase in a photocurable hydrogel membrane, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate). With mediation by ferrocene, the biosensor could measure capsaicin concentrations at a potential 0.22 V (vs. Ag/AgCl), which prevented potential interference from other electroactive species in the sample. Thus a good selectivity towards capsaicin was demonstrated. The linear response range of the biosensor towards capsaicin was from 2.5–99.0 µM with detection limit of 1.94 µM. A good relative standard deviation (RSD) for reproducibility of 6.4%–9.9% was obtained. The capsaicin biosensor demonstrated long-term stability for up to seven months. The performance of the biosensor has been validated using a standard method for the analysis of capsaicin based on HPLC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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25 pages, 641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spectroscopic Determination of Aboveground Biomass in Grasslands Using Spectral Transformations, Support Vector Machine and Partial Least Squares Regression

by Miguel Marabel and Flor Alvarez-Taboada^*

GEOINCA-202, University of León, Campus of Ponferrada C/ Avda, de Astorga, 24401 Ponferrada, León, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10027-10051; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810027 - 6 Aug 2013

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 8077

Abstract

Aboveground biomass (AGB) is one of the strategic biophysical variables of interest in vegetation studies. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) for estimating the AGB of grasslands from field [...] Read more.

Aboveground biomass (AGB) is one of the strategic biophysical variables of interest in vegetation studies. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) for estimating the AGB of grasslands from field spectrometer data and to find out which data pre-processing approach was the most suitable. The most accurate model to predict the total AGB involved PLSR and the Maximum Band Depth index derived from the continuum removed reflectance in the absorption features between 916–1,120 nm and 1,079–1,297 nm (R² = 0.939, RMSE = 7.120 g/m²). Regarding the green fraction of the AGB, the Area Over the Minimum index derived from the continuum removed spectra provided the most accurate model overall (R² = 0.939, RMSE = 3.172 g/m²). Identifying the appropriate absorption features was proved to be crucial to improve the performance of PLSR to estimate the total and green aboveground biomass, by using the indices derived from those spectral regions. Ordinary Least Square Regression could be used as a surrogate for the PLSR approach with the Area Over the Minimum index as the independent variable, although the resulting model would not be as accurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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22 pages, 1173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Vision-Based Automated Guided Vehicle System with Marker Recognition for Indoor Use

by Jeisung Lee¹, Chang-Ho Hyun^2,* and Mignon Park¹

¹ School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Yonsei University, 134 Shinchon-Dong, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul 120-749, Korea

² Division of Electrical Electronic and Control Engineering, Kongju National University, Cheonan, Chungnam 331-717, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10052-10073; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810052 - 7 Aug 2013

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9158

Abstract

We propose an intelligent vision-based Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) system using fiduciary markers. In this paper, we explore a low-cost, efficient vehicle guiding method using a consumer grade web camera and fiduciary markers. In the proposed method, the system uses fiduciary markers with [...] Read more.

We propose an intelligent vision-based Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) system using fiduciary markers. In this paper, we explore a low-cost, efficient vehicle guiding method using a consumer grade web camera and fiduciary markers. In the proposed method, the system uses fiduciary markers with a capital letter or triangle indicating direction in it. The markers are very easy to produce, manipulate, and maintain. The marker information is used to guide a vehicle. We use hue and saturation values in the image to extract marker candidates. When the known size fiduciary marker is detected by using a bird’s eye view and Hough transform, the positional relation between the marker and the vehicle can be calculated. To recognize the character in the marker, a distance transform is used. The probability of feature matching was calculated by using a distance transform, and a feature having high probability is selected as a captured marker. Four directional signals and 10 alphabet features are defined and used as markers. A 98.87% recognition rate was achieved in the testing phase. The experimental results with the fiduciary marker show that the proposed method is a solution for an indoor AGV system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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13 pages, 635 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stroke Damage Detection Using Classification Trees on Electrical Bioimpedance Cerebral Spectroscopy Measurements

by Seyed Reza Atefi^1,*, Fernando Seoane^1,2, Thorleif Thorlin³ and Kaj Lindecrantz^1,2,4

¹ School of Technology and Health, Royal Institute of Technology, Alfred Nobels Allé 10, Huddinge SE-141 52, Sweden

² School of Engineering, University of Boras, Allégatan 1, Boras SE-501 90, Sweden

³ Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg SE-405 30, Sweden

⁴ Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Hälsovägen 7, Stockholm SE-141 57, Sweden

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10074-10086; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810074 - 7 Aug 2013

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6628

Abstract

After cancer and cardio-vascular disease, stroke is the third greatest cause of death worldwide. Given the limitations of the current imaging technologies used for stroke diagnosis, the need for portable non-invasive and less expensive diagnostic tools is crucial. Previous studies have suggested that [...] Read more.

After cancer and cardio-vascular disease, stroke is the third greatest cause of death worldwide. Given the limitations of the current imaging technologies used for stroke diagnosis, the need for portable non-invasive and less expensive diagnostic tools is crucial. Previous studies have suggested that electrical bioimpedance (EBI) measurements from the head might contain useful clinical information related to changes produced in the cerebral tissue after the onset of stroke. In this study, we recorded 720 EBI Spectroscopy (EBIS) measurements from two different head regions of 18 hemispheres of nine subjects. Three of these subjects had suffered a unilateral haemorrhagic stroke. A number of features based on structural and intrinsic frequency-dependent properties of the cerebral tissue were extracted. These features were then fed into a classification tree. The results show that a full classification of damaged and undamaged cerebral tissue was achieved after three hierarchical classification steps. Lastly, the performance of the classification tree was assessed using Leave-One-Out Cross Validation (LOO-CV). Despite the fact that the results of this study are limited to a small database, and the observations obtained must be verified further with a larger cohort of patients, these findings confirm that EBI measurements contain useful information for assessing on the health of brain tissue after stroke and supports the hypothesis that classification features based on Cole parameters, spectral information and the geometry of EBIS measurements are useful to differentiate between healthy and stroke damaged brain tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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36 pages, 906 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements of Data Anomaly Detection Research in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey and Open Issues

by Murad A. Rassam^1,2,*

, Anazida Zainal^1,* and Mohd Aizaini Maarof¹

¹ Faculty of Computing, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor 81310, Malaysia

² Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Taiz University, Taiz 6803, Yemen

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10087-10122; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810087 - 7 Aug 2013

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 10571

Abstract

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are important and necessary platforms for the future as the concept “Internet of Things” has emerged lately. They are used for monitoring, tracking, or controlling of many applications in industry, health care, habitat, and military. However, the [...] Read more.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are important and necessary platforms for the future as the concept “Internet of Things” has emerged lately. They are used for monitoring, tracking, or controlling of many applications in industry, health care, habitat, and military. However, the quality of data collected by sensor nodes is affected by anomalies that occur due to various reasons, such as node failures, reading errors, unusual events, and malicious attacks. Therefore, anomaly detection is a necessary process to ensure the quality of sensor data before it is utilized for making decisions. In this review, we present the challenges of anomaly detection in WSNs and state the requirements to design efficient and effective anomaly detection models. We then review the latest advancements of data anomaly detection research in WSNs and classify current detection approaches in five main classes based on the detection methods used to design these approaches. Varieties of the state-of-the-art models for each class are covered and their limitations are highlighted to provide ideas for potential future works. Furthermore, the reviewed approaches are compared and evaluated based on how well they meet the stated requirements. Finally, the general limitations of current approaches are mentioned and further research opportunities are suggested and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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28 pages, 5840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Bell-Shaped Vibratory Angular Rate Gyro

by Ning Liu^1,2, Zhong Su^1,2,*, Qing Li², Mengyin Fu¹, Hong Liu^1,2 and Junfang Fan²

¹ School of Automation, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100084, China

² Beijing Key Laboratory of High Dynamic Navigation Technology, Beijing Information Science & Technological University, Beijing 100101, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10123-10150; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810123 - 7 Aug 2013

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8414

Abstract

The bell-shaped vibratory angular rate gyro (abbreviated as BVG) is a novel shell vibratory gyroscope, which is inspired by the Chinese traditional bell. It sensitizes angular velocity through the standing wave precession effect. The bell-shaped resonator is a core component of the BVG [...] Read more.

The bell-shaped vibratory angular rate gyro (abbreviated as BVG) is a novel shell vibratory gyroscope, which is inspired by the Chinese traditional bell. It sensitizes angular velocity through the standing wave precession effect. The bell-shaped resonator is a core component of the BVG and looks like the millimeter-grade Chinese traditional bell, such as QianLong Bell and Yongle Bell. It is made of Ni43CrTi, which is a constant modulus alloy. The exciting element, control element and detection element are uniformly distributed and attached to the resonator, respectively. This work presents the design, analysis and experimentation on the BVG. It is most important to analyze the vibratory character of the bell-shaped resonator. The strain equation, internal force and the resonator's equilibrium differential equation are derived in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system. When the input angular velocity is existent on the sensitive axis, an analysis of the vibratory character is performed using the theory of thin shells. On this basis, the mode shape function and the simplified second order normal vibration mode dynamical equation are obtained. The coriolis coupling relationship about the primary mode and secondary mode is established. The methods of the signal processing and control loop are presented. Analyzing the impact resistance property of the bell-shaped resonator, which is compared with other shell resonators using the Finite Element Method, demonstrates that BVG has the advantage of a better impact resistance property. A reasonable means of installation and a prototypal gyro are designed. The gyroscopic effect of the BVG is characterized through experiments. Experimental results show that the BVG has not only the advantages of low cost, low power, long work life, high sensitivity, and so on, but, also, of a simple structure and a better impact resistance property for low and medium angular velocity measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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16 pages, 510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measuring Center of Pressure Signals to Quantify Human Balance Using Multivariate Multiscale Entropy by Designing a Force Platform

by Cheng-Wei Huang¹, Pei-Der Sue¹, Maysam F. Abbod²

, Bernard C. Jiang^3,4 and Jiann-Shing Shieh^1,4,*

¹ Department of Mechanical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li 32003, Taiwan

² School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University, London UB8 3PH, UK

³ Department of Industrial Management, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei 106, Taiwan

⁴ Center for Dynamical Biomarkers and Translational Medicine, National Central University, Chung-Li 32001, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10151-10166; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810151 - 8 Aug 2013

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 9708

Abstract

To assess the improvement of human body balance, a low cost and portable measuring device of center of pressure (COP), known as center of pressure and complexity monitoring system (CPCMS), has been developed for data logging and analysis. In order to prove that [...] Read more.

To assess the improvement of human body balance, a low cost and portable measuring device of center of pressure (COP), known as center of pressure and complexity monitoring system (CPCMS), has been developed for data logging and analysis. In order to prove that the system can estimate the different magnitude of different sways in comparison with the commercial Advanced Mechanical Technology Incorporation (AMTI) system, four sway tests have been developed (i.e., eyes open, eyes closed, eyes open with water pad, and eyes closed with water pad) to produce different sway displacements. Firstly, static and dynamic tests were conducted to investigate the feasibility of the system. Then, correlation tests of the CPCMS and AMTI systems have been compared with four sway tests. The results are within the acceptable range. Furthermore, multivariate empirical mode decomposition (MEMD) and enhanced multivariate multiscale entropy (MMSE) analysis methods have been used to analyze COP data reported by the CPCMS and compare it with the AMTI system. The improvements of the CPCMS are 35% to 70% (open eyes test) and 60% to 70% (eyes closed test) with and without water pad. The AMTI system has shown an improvement of 40% to 80% (open eyes test) and 65% to 75% (closed eyes test). The results indicate that the CPCMS system can achieve similar results to the commercial product so it can determine the balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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10 pages, 692 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Molar Deltamethrin Sensor Based on Electrical Impedance of PAH/PAZO Layer-by-Layer Sensing Films

by Luís Miguel Gomes Abegão

, Jorge Humberto Fernandes Ribeiro, Paulo António Ribeiro

and Maria Raposo^*

CEFITEC, Departamento de Física, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica 2829-516, Portugal

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10167-10176; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810167 - 8 Aug 2013

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7452

Abstract

This work reports a novel deltamethrin (DM) sensor able to detect nano-molar concentrations in ethanol solutions. The sensing layer consists of a thin film, obtained via a layer-by-layer technique, from alternate adsorption of poly(allylamine chloride) (PAH) and poly[1-[4-(3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylazo)-benzenesulfonamide)-1,2-ethanediyl]sodium salt] (PAZO) onto a solid [...] Read more.

This work reports a novel deltamethrin (DM) sensor able to detect nano-molar concentrations in ethanol solutions. The sensing layer consists of a thin film, obtained via a layer-by-layer technique, from alternate adsorption of poly(allylamine chloride) (PAH) and poly[1-[4-(3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylazo)-benzenesulfonamide)-1,2-ethanediyl]sodium salt] (PAZO) onto a solid support with interdigitaded gold electrodes. The sensor response, obtained from impedance spectroscopy measurements, was revealed to be linear with respect to the real part of impedance, taken at 100 Hz, when plotted as a function of the logarithm of deltamethrin molar concentrations in the micro- to nano-molar range. Sensor sensitivity was of 41.1 ± 0.7 kΩ per decade of concentration for an immersion time above 2 min and the reproducibility is approximately 2% in a binary solution of ethanol and deltamethrin. The main insight of this work concerns to DM detection limits as the sensor revealed to be able to detect concentrations below 0.1 nM, a value which is significantly lower than any reported in the literature and close what is appropriate for in situ environmental contaminant detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multimetallic Nanoparticles for Chemical/Biological Sensing Applications)

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14 pages, 584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of On-Line Visible and Near Infrared Spectroscopy for Measurement of pH for Deriving Variable Rate Lime Recommendations

by Yücel Tekin^1,*, Boyan Kuang² and Abdul M. Mouazen²

¹ Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Uludag University, Bursa 16059, Turkey

² Environmental Science and Technology Department, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10177-10190; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810177 - 8 Aug 2013

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7903

Abstract

This paper aims at exploring the potential of visible and near infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy for on-line measurement of soil pH, with the intention to produce variable rate lime recommendation maps. An on-line vis-NIR soil sensor set up to a frame was used in [...] Read more.

This paper aims at exploring the potential of visible and near infrared (vis-NIR) spectroscopy for on-line measurement of soil pH, with the intention to produce variable rate lime recommendation maps. An on-line vis-NIR soil sensor set up to a frame was used in this study. Lime application maps, based on pH predicted by vis-NIR techniques, were compared with maps based on traditional lab-measured pH. The validation of the calibration model using off-line spectra provided excellent prediction accuracy of pH (R² = 0.85, RMSEP = 0.18 and RPD = 2.52), as compared to very good accuracy obtained with the on-line measured spectra (R² = 0.81, RMSEP = 0.20 and RPD = 2.14). On-line predicted pH of all points (e.g., 2,160) resulted in the largest overall field virtual lime requirement (1.404 t), as compared to those obtained with 16 validation points off-line prediction (0.28 t), on-line prediction (0.14 t) and laboratory reference measurement (0.48 t). The conclusion is that the vis-NIR spectroscopy can be successfully used for the prediction of soil pH and for deriving lime recommendations. The advantage of the on-line sensor over sampling with limited number of samples is that more detailed information about pH can be obtained, which is the reason for a higher but precise calculated lime recommendation rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in the UK 2013)

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28 pages, 1156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Video Broadcast-Terrestrial (DVB-T) Single Frequency Networks Positioning in Dynamic Scenarios

by Jie Huang^*, Letizia Lo Presti and Roberto Garello

Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Turin 10129, Italy

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10191-10218; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810191 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7075

Abstract

Since Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) show degraded performance in dense urban and indoor areas, a positioning sensor based on Digital Video Broadcast-Terrestrial (DVB-T) systems is presented in this paper. DVB-T signals can be considered as signals-of-opportunity for positioning, due to their good [...] Read more.

Since Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) show degraded performance in dense urban and indoor areas, a positioning sensor based on Digital Video Broadcast-Terrestrial (DVB-T) systems is presented in this paper. DVB-T signals can be considered as signals-of-opportunity for positioning, due to their good properties. One of the challenges to overcome is to distinguish the signals from different emitters. Here, we suppose that the user can first compute his position by GNSS during an initialization phase, which is used for solving all the ambiguities concerning DVB-T emitters. Starting from there, DVB-T signals can be used for aiding positioning when the user enters a GNSS-blocked area, up to a limit case, where all the GNSS satellites are not in view and only DVB-T signals are used for positioning. We tested this method by simulation, by adopting the Hata model for the emitter attenuations and the Rayleigh model for multipath. The obtained results show good performance if the receiver correctly associates the signal to the user’s motion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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26 pages, 1129 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On Maximizing the Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks by Optimally Assigning Energy Supplies

by Rafael Asorey-Cacheda^1,*, Antonio Javier García-Sánchez², Felipe García-Sánchez², Joan García-Haro² and Francisco Javier González-Castano³

¹ Centro Universitario de la Defensa, University of Vigo, Praza de España, Marín 36920, Spain

² Departament of Information and Communication Technologies, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena (UPCT), ETSIT, Campus Muralla del Mar 1, Cartagena 30202, Spain

³ Departamento de Enxeñaría Telemática, University of Vigo, Campus, Vigo 36310, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10219-10244; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810219 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8444

Abstract

The extension of the network lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is an important issue that has not been appropriately solved yet. This paper addresses this concern and proposes some techniques to plan an arbitrary WSN. To this end, we suggest a hierarchical [...] Read more.

The extension of the network lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is an important issue that has not been appropriately solved yet. This paper addresses this concern and proposes some techniques to plan an arbitrary WSN. To this end, we suggest a hierarchical network architecture, similar to realistic scenarios, where nodes with renewable energy sources (denoted as primary nodes) carry out most message delivery tasks, and nodes equipped with conventional chemical batteries (denoted as secondary nodes) are those with less communication demands. The key design issue of this network architecture is the development of a new optimization framework to calculate the optimal assignment of renewable energy supplies (primary node assignment) to maximize network lifetime, obtaining the minimum number of energy supplies and their node assignment. We also conduct a second optimization step to additionally minimize the number of packet hops between the source and the sink. In this work, we present an algorithm that approaches the results of the optimization framework, but with much faster execution speed, which is a good alternative for large-scale WSN networks. Finally, the network model, the optimization process and the designed algorithm are further evaluated and validated by means of computer simulation under realistic conditions. The results obtained are discussed comparatively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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28 pages, 1568 KiB

Open AccessReview

On-Line Flatness Measurement in the Steelmaking Industry

by Julio Molleda^*, Rubén Usamentiaga

and Daniel F. García

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Oviedo, E-33204 Gijón, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10245-10272; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810245 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 16221

Abstract

Shape is a key characteristic to determine the quality of outgoing flat-rolled products in the steel industry. It is greatly influenced by flatness, a feature to describe how the surface of a rolled product approaches a plane. Flatness is of the utmost importance [...] Read more.

Shape is a key characteristic to determine the quality of outgoing flat-rolled products in the steel industry. It is greatly influenced by flatness, a feature to describe how the surface of a rolled product approaches a plane. Flatness is of the utmost importance in steelmaking, since it is used by most downstream processes and customers for the acceptance or rejection of rolled products. Flatness sensors compute flatness measurements based on comparing the length of several longitudinal fibers of the surface of the product under inspection. Two main different approaches are commonly used. On the one hand, most mechanical sensors measure the tensile stress across the width of the rolled product, while manufacturing and estimating the fiber lengths from this stress. On the other hand, optical sensors measure the length of the fibers by means of light patterns projected onto the product surface. In this paper, we review the techniques and the main sensors used in the steelmaking industry to measure and quantify flatness defects in steel plates, sheets and strips. Most of these techniques and sensors can be used in other industries involving rolling mills or continuous production lines, such as aluminum, copper and paper, to name a few. Encompassed in the special issue, State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013, this paper also reviews the most important flatness sensors designed and developed for the steelmaking industry in Spain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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14 pages, 372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recognizing the Degree of Human Attention Using EEG Signals from Mobile Sensors

by Ning-Han Liu^*, Cheng-Yu Chiang and Hsuan-Chin Chu

Department of Management Information Systems, National Pingtung University of Science & Technology, 1, Shuefu Road, Neipu, Pingtung 912, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10273-10286; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810273 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 327 | Viewed by 21018

Abstract

During the learning process, whether students remain attentive throughout instruction generally influences their learning efficacy. If teachers can instantly identify whether students are attentive they can be suitably reminded to remain focused, thereby improving their learning effects. Traditional teaching methods generally require that [...] Read more.

During the learning process, whether students remain attentive throughout instruction generally influences their learning efficacy. If teachers can instantly identify whether students are attentive they can be suitably reminded to remain focused, thereby improving their learning effects. Traditional teaching methods generally require that teachers observe students’ expressions to determine whether they are attentively learning. However, this method is often inaccurate and increases the burden on teachers. With the development of electroencephalography (EEG) detection tools, mobile brainwave sensors have become mature and affordable equipment. Therefore, in this study, whether students are attentive or inattentive during instruction is determined by observing their EEG signals. Because distinguishing between attentiveness and inattentiveness is challenging, two scenarios were developed for this study to measure the subjects’ EEG signals when attentive and inattentive. After collecting EEG data using mobile sensors, various common features were extracted from the raw data. A support vector machine (SVM) classifier was used to calculate and analyze these features to identify the combination of features that best indicates whether students are attentive. Based on the experiment results, the method proposed in this study provides a classification accuracy of up to 76.82%. The study results can be used as a reference for learning system designs in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 14256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Sintering Burn-Through Point Using Infrared Thermography

by Rubén Usamentiaga^*

, Julio Molleda, Daniel F. Garcia and Francisco G. Bulnes

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Oviedo, Campus de Viesques, Gijón, Asturias 33204, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10287-10305; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810287 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 11032

Abstract

Sintering is a complex industrial process that applies heat to fine particles of iron ore and other materials to produce sinter, a solidified porous material used in blast furnaces. The sintering process needs to be carefully adjusted, so that the combustion zone reaches [...] Read more.

Sintering is a complex industrial process that applies heat to fine particles of iron ore and other materials to produce sinter, a solidified porous material used in blast furnaces. The sintering process needs to be carefully adjusted, so that the combustion zone reaches the bottom of the material just before the discharge end. This is known as the burnthrough point. Many different parameters need to be finely tuned, including the speed and the quantities of the materials mixed. However, in order to achieve good results, sintering control requires precise feedback to adjust these parameters. This work presents a sensor to monitor the sintering burn-through point based on infrared thermography. The proposed procedure is based on the acquisition of infrared images at the end of the sintering process. At this position, infrared images contain the cross-section temperatures of the mixture. The objective of this work is to process this information to extract relevant features about the sintering process. The proposed procedure is based on four steps: key frame detection, region of interest detection, segmentation and feature extraction. The results indicate that the proposed procedure is very robust and reliable, providing features that can be used effectively to control the sintering process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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27 pages, 1336 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Subcarrier-Pair Based Resource Allocation Scheme Using Proportional Fairness for Cooperative OFDM-Based Cognitive Radio Networks

by Yongtao Ma, Liuji Zhou^* and Kaihua Liu

School of Electronic Information Engineering, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin 300072, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10306-10332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810306 - 9 Aug 2013

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6140

Abstract

The paper presents a joint subcarrier-pair based resource allocation algorithm in order to improve the efficiency and fairness of cooperative multiuser orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MU-OFDM) cognitive radio (CR) systems. A communication model where one source node communicates with one destination node assisted [...] Read more.

The paper presents a joint subcarrier-pair based resource allocation algorithm in order to improve the efficiency and fairness of cooperative multiuser orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (MU-OFDM) cognitive radio (CR) systems. A communication model where one source node communicates with one destination node assisted by one half-duplex decode-and-forward (DF) relay is considered in the paper. An interference-limited environment is considered, with the constraint of transmitted sum-power over all channels and aggregate average interference towards multiple primary users (PUs). The proposed resource allocation algorithm is capable of maximizing both the system transmission efficiency and fairness among secondary users (SUs). Besides, the proposed algorithm can also keep the interference introduced to the PU bands below a threshold. A proportional fairness constraint is used to assure that each SU can achieve a required data rate, with quality of service guarantees. Moreover, we extend the analysis to the scenario where each cooperative SU has no channel state information (CSI) about non-adjacent links. We analyzed the throughput and fairness tradeoff in CR system. A detailed analysis of the performance of the proposed algorithm is presented with the simulation results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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15 pages, 786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Finite Element Model for Writing Long-Period Fiber Gratings by CO₂ Laser Radiation

by João M. P. Coelho^1,2,*, Marta Nespereira¹, Manuel Abreu¹ and José Rebordão¹

¹ Laboratory of Optics, Lasers and Systems, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campus do Lumiar, Estrada do Paço do Lumiar, 22, Building D, 1649-038 Lisboa, Portugal

² Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, Lisboa 1749-016, Portugal

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10333-10347; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810333 - 12 Aug 2013

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7929

Abstract

In the last years, mid-infrared radiation emitted by CO₂ lasers has become increasing popular as a tool in the development of long-period fiber gratings. However, although the development and characterization of the resulting sensing devices have progressed quickly, further research is still [...] Read more.

In the last years, mid-infrared radiation emitted by CO₂ lasers has become increasing popular as a tool in the development of long-period fiber gratings. However, although the development and characterization of the resulting sensing devices have progressed quickly, further research is still necessary to consolidate functional models, especially regarding the interaction between laser radiation and the fiber’s material. In this paper, a 3D finite element model is presented to simulate the interaction between laser radiation and an optical fiber and to determine the resulting refractive index change. Dependence with temperature of the main parameters of the optical fiber materials (with special focus on the absorption of incident laser radiation) is considered, as well as convection and radiation losses. Thermal and residual stress analyses are made for a standard single mode fiber, and experimental results are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optomechatronics)

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10 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Capability of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors to Measure Amputees’ Trans-Tibial Stump/Socket Interface Pressures

by Ebrahim A. Al-Fakih^1,2,*

, Noor Azuan Abu Osman¹, Arezoo Eshraghi¹ and Faisal Rafiq Mahamd Adikan²

¹ Center for Applied Biomechanics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

² Photonics Research Group, Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10348-10357; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810348 - 12 Aug 2013

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9708

Abstract

This study presents the first investigation into the capability of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors to measure interface pressure between the stump and the prosthetic sockets of a trans-tibial amputee. FBG element(s) were recoated with and embedded in a thin layer of epoxy [...] Read more.

This study presents the first investigation into the capability of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors to measure interface pressure between the stump and the prosthetic sockets of a trans-tibial amputee. FBG element(s) were recoated with and embedded in a thin layer of epoxy material to form a sensing pad, which was in turn embedded in a silicone polymer material to form a pressure sensor. The sensor was tested in real time by inserting a heavy-duty balloon into the socket and inflating it by using an air compressor. This test was conducted to examine the sensitivity and repeatability of the sensor when subjected to pressure from the stump of the trans-tibial amputee and to mimic the actual environment of the amputee’s Patellar Tendon (PT) bar. The sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 127 pm/N and a maximum FSO hysteresis of around ~0.09 in real-time operation. Very good reliability was achieved when the sensor was utilized for in situ measurements. This study may lead to smart FBG-based amputee stump/socket structures for pressure monitoring in amputee socket systems, which will result in better-designed prosthetic sockets that ensure improved patient satisfaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Globalized Healthy Living and Wellbeing)

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12 pages, 485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of Bimetallic Platinum Nanoparticles for Biosensors

by Gerard M. Leteba¹

and Candace I. Lang^2,*

¹ Centre for Materials Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Private Bag, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa

² Department of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10358-10369; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810358 - 12 Aug 2013

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 9242

Abstract

The use of magnetic nanomaterials in biosensing applications is growing as a consequence of their remarkable properties; but controlling the composition and shape of metallic nanoalloys is problematic when more than one precursor is required for wet chemistry synthesis. We have developed a [...] Read more.

The use of magnetic nanomaterials in biosensing applications is growing as a consequence of their remarkable properties; but controlling the composition and shape of metallic nanoalloys is problematic when more than one precursor is required for wet chemistry synthesis. We have developed a successful simultaneous reduction method for preparation of near-spherical platinum-based nanoalloys containing magnetic solutes. We avoided particular difficulties in preparing platinum nanoalloys containing Ni, Co and Fe by the identification of appropriate synthesis temperatures and chemistry. We used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to show that our particles have a narrow size distribution, uniform size and morphology, and good crystallinity in the as-synthesized condition. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirms the coexistence of Pt with the magnetic solute in a face-centered cubic (FCC) solid solution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multimetallic Nanoparticles for Chemical/Biological Sensing Applications)

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16 pages, 1756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Angular Acceleration Sensor Based on the Electromagnetic Induction Principle and Investigation of Its Calibration Tests

by Hao Zhao¹ and Hao Feng^2,*

¹ Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Jiaxing University, No.56, Yuexiu South Road, Jiaxing 314001, China

² Department of Information and Engineering Life, Hangzhou Dianzi University, No.1 Avenue, 2 Xiasha, Jianggan District, Hangzhou 310018, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10370-10385; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810370 - 12 Aug 2013

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6769

Abstract

An angular acceleration sensor can be used for the dynamic analysis of human and joint motions. In this paper, an angular acceleration sensor with novel structure based on the principle of electromagnetic induction is designed. The method involves the construction of a constant [...] Read more.

An angular acceleration sensor can be used for the dynamic analysis of human and joint motions. In this paper, an angular acceleration sensor with novel structure based on the principle of electromagnetic induction is designed. The method involves the construction of a constant magnetic field by the excitation windings of sensor, and the cup-shaped rotor that cut the magnetic field. The output windings of the sensor generate an electromotive force, which is directly proportional to the angular acceleration through the electromagnetic coupling when the rotor has rotational angular acceleration. The mechanical structure and the magnetic working circuit of the sensor are described. The output properties and the mathematical model including the transfer function and state-space model of the sensor are established. The asymptotical stability of the sensor when it is working is verified by the Lyapunov Theorem. An angular acceleration calibration device based on the torsional pendulum principle is designed. The method involves the coaxial connection of the angular acceleration sensor, torsion pendulum and a high-precision angle sensor, and then an initial external force is applied to the torsion pendulum to produce a periodic damping angle oscillation. The angular acceleration sensor and the angle sensor will generate two corresponding electrical signals. The sensitivity coefficient of the angular acceleration sensor can be obtained after processing these two-channel signals. The experiment results show that the sensitivity coefficient of the sensor is about 17.29 mv/Krad·s². Finally, the errors existing in the practical applications of the sensor are discussed and the corresponding improvement measures are proposed to provide effective technical support for the practical promotion of the novel sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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32 pages, 1808 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensor Networks for Optimal Target Localization with Bearings-Only Measurements in Constrained Three-Dimensional Scenarios

by David Moreno-Salinas^1,*, Antonio Pascoal² and Joaquin Aranda¹

¹ Department of Computer Science and Automatic Control, National University Distance Education (UNED), Juan del Rosal 16, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Institute for Systems and Robotics (ISR), Instituto Superior Tecnico (IST), Univ. Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, Lisbon 1049-001, Portugal

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10386-10417; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810386 - 12 Aug 2013

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 7184

Abstract

In this paper, we address the problem of determining the optimal geometric configuration of an acoustic sensor network that will maximize the angle-related information available for underwater target positioning. In the set-up adopted, a set of autonomous vehicles carries a network of acoustic [...] Read more.

In this paper, we address the problem of determining the optimal geometric configuration of an acoustic sensor network that will maximize the angle-related information available for underwater target positioning. In the set-up adopted, a set of autonomous vehicles carries a network of acoustic units that measure the elevation and azimuth angles between a target and each of the receivers on board the vehicles. It is assumed that the angle measurements are corrupted by white Gaussian noise, the variance of which is distance-dependent. Using tools from estimation theory, the problem is converted into that of minimizing, by proper choice of the sensor positions, the trace of the inverse of the Fisher Information Matrix (also called the Cramer-Rao Bound matrix) to determine the sensor configuration that yields the minimum possible covariance of any unbiased target estimator. It is shown that the optimal configuration of the sensors depends explicitly on the intensity of the measurement noise, the constraints imposed on the sensor configuration, the target depth and the probabilistic distribution that defines the prior uncertainty in the target position. Simulation examples illustrate the key results derived. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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12 pages, 396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Embedded Simplified Fuzzy ARTMAP Implemented on a Microcontroller for Food Classification

by Eduardo Garcia-Breijo^*

, Jose Garrigues, Luis Gil Sanchez and Nicolas Laguarda-Miro

Centro de Reconocimiento Molecular y Desarrollo Tecnológico, Unidad Mixta UPV-UV, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camí de Vera s/n, València E-46022, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10418-10429; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810418 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7267

Abstract

In the present study, a portable system based on a microcontroller has been developed to classify different kinds of honeys. In order to do this classification, a Simplified Fuzzy ARTMAP network (SFA) implemented in a microcontroller has been used. Due to memory limits [...] Read more.

In the present study, a portable system based on a microcontroller has been developed to classify different kinds of honeys. In order to do this classification, a Simplified Fuzzy ARTMAP network (SFA) implemented in a microcontroller has been used. Due to memory limits when working with microcontrollers, it is necessary to optimize the use of both program and data memory. Thus, a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for MATLAB^® has been developed in order to optimize the necessary parameters to programme the SFA in a microcontroller. The measures have been carried out by potentiometric techniques using a multielectrode made of seven different metals. Next, the neural network has been trained on a PC by means of the GUI in Matlab using the data obtained in the experimental phase. The microcontroller has been programmed with the obtained parameters and then, new samples have been analysed using the portable system in order to test the model. Results are very promising, as an 87.5% recognition rate has been achieved in the training phase, which suggests that this kind of procedures can be successfully used not only for honey classification, but also for many other kinds of food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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19 pages, 875 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of a Force Sensor to Improve the Reliability of Measurement with Articulated Arm Coordinate Measuring Machines

by Daniel González-Madruga¹, Eduardo Cuesta^2,*, Joaquín Barreiro¹ and Ana Isabel Fernandez-Abia¹

¹ Department of Mechanical, Informatics and Aeroespatial Engineering, University of León, Campus de Vegazana, León 24071, Spain

² Department of Manufacturing Engineering, University of Oviedo, Campus de Gijón, Asturias 33203, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10430-10448; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810430 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8858

Abstract

A study of the operator contact force influence on the performance of Articulated Arm Coordinate Measuring Machines (AACMMs) is presented in this paper. After developing a sensor capable of measuring the contact force applied by an operator, a ring gauge has been used [...] Read more.

A study of the operator contact force influence on the performance of Articulated Arm Coordinate Measuring Machines (AACMMs) is presented in this paper. After developing a sensor capable of measuring the contact force applied by an operator, a ring gauge has been used to analyse the relationship between the contact force and diameter and form errors measured with the AACMM. As a result, contact force has been proved as one of the main factors influencing the AACMM performance. A probe deflection model based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) has been also proposed in order to obtain the AACMM probe deflection caused by contact force. This allows measurement correction by comparing them with reference values, specifically, a ring gauge. Experimental test results show a significant measurement improvement that minimizes diameter error. Finally, an uncertainty evaluation for the contact force sensor and AACMM measurements with and without probe deflection model has been carried out in order to validate the ability of the sensor and the methodology followed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tactile Sensors and Sensing Systems)

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33 pages, 1238 KiB

Open AccessReview

Spectroscopy, Manipulation and Trapping of Neutral Atoms, Molecules, and Other Particles Using Optical Nanofibers: A Review

by Michael J. Morrissey¹, Kieran Deasy², Mary Frawley^2,3, Ravi Kumar^2,3, Eugen Prel^2,3, Laura Russell^2,3, Viet Giang Truong² and Síle Nic Chormaic^1,2,3,*

¹ School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4001, South Africa

² Light-Matter Interactions Unit, OIST Graduate University, 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan

³ Physics Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10449-10481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810449 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 14620

Abstract

The use of tapered optical fibers, i.e., optical nanofibers, for spectroscopy and the detection of small numbers of particles, such as neutral atoms or molecules, has been gaining interest in recent years. In this review, we briefly introduce the optical nanofiber, its [...] Read more.

The use of tapered optical fibers, i.e., optical nanofibers, for spectroscopy and the detection of small numbers of particles, such as neutral atoms or molecules, has been gaining interest in recent years. In this review, we briefly introduce the optical nanofiber, its fabrication, and optical mode propagation within. We discuss recent progress on the integration of optical nanofibers into laser-cooled atom and vapor systems, paying particular attention to spectroscopy, cold atom cloud characterization, and optical trapping schemes. Next, a natural extension of this work to molecules is introduced. Finally, we consider several alternatives to optical nanofibers that display some advantages for specific applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotube and Nanowire Sensors)

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37 pages, 1229 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Semiconductor Ultraviolet Photodetectors: From Thin Film to One-Dimensional Nanostructures

by Liwen Sang^1,2,*, Meiyong Liao³

and Masatomo Sumiya^3,4

¹ International Center for Young Scientists (ICYS), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan

² JST-PRESTO, the Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan

³ Optical and Electronic Materials Unit, National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan

⁴ JST-ALCA, the Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo 102-0076, Japan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10482-10518; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810482 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 765 | Viewed by 31755

Abstract

Ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors have drawn extensive attention owing to their applications in industrial, environmental and even biological fields. Compared to UV-enhanced Si photodetectors, a new generation of wide bandgap semiconductors, such as (Al, In) GaN, diamond, and SiC, have the advantages of high [...] Read more.

Ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors have drawn extensive attention owing to their applications in industrial, environmental and even biological fields. Compared to UV-enhanced Si photodetectors, a new generation of wide bandgap semiconductors, such as (Al, In) GaN, diamond, and SiC, have the advantages of high responsivity, high thermal stability, robust radiation hardness and high response speed. On the other hand, one-dimensional (1D) nanostructure semiconductors with a wide bandgap, such as β-Ga₂O₃, GaN, ZnO, or other metal-oxide nanostructures, also show their potential for high-efficiency UV photodetection. In some cases such as flame detection, high-temperature thermally stable detectors with high performance are required. This article provides a comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art research activities in the UV photodetection field, including not only semiconductor thin films, but also 1D nanostructured materials, which are attracting more and more attention in the detection field. A special focus is given on the thermal stability of the developed devices, which is one of the key characteristics for the real applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photodetectors)

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20 pages, 579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

I Feel You: The Design and Evaluation of a Domotic Affect-Sensitive Spoken Conversational Agent

by Syaheerah Lebai Lutfi^1,*, Fernando Fernández-Martínez², Jaime Lorenzo-Trueba³, Roberto Barra-Chicote³ and Juan Manuel Montero³

¹ School of Computer Sciences, University Science of Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia

² Departamento de Teoría de la Señal y Comunicaciones, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Madrid 28911, Spain

³ Grupo de Tecnología del Habla, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10519-10538; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810519 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7582

Abstract

We describe the work on infusion of emotion into a limited-task autonomous spoken conversational agent situated in the domestic environment, using a need-inspired task-independent emotion model (NEMO). In order to demonstrate the generation of affect through the use of the model, we describe [...] Read more.

We describe the work on infusion of emotion into a limited-task autonomous spoken conversational agent situated in the domestic environment, using a need-inspired task-independent emotion model (NEMO). In order to demonstrate the generation of affect through the use of the model, we describe the work of integrating it with a natural-language mixed-initiative HiFi-control spoken conversational agent (SCA). NEMO and the host system communicate externally, removing the need for the Dialog Manager to be modified, as is done in most existing dialog systems, in order to be adaptive. The first part of the paper concerns the integration between NEMO and the host agent. The second part summarizes the work on automatic affect prediction, namely, frustration and contentment, from dialog features, a non-conventional source, in the attempt of moving towards a more user-centric approach. The final part reports the evaluation results obtained from a user study, in which both versions of the agent (non-adaptive and emotionally-adaptive) were compared. The results provide substantial evidences with respect to the benefits of adding emotion in a spoken conversational agent, especially in mitigating users’ frustrations and, ultimately, improving their satisfaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2012 - the 6th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & 4th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2012))

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11 pages, 574 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Visible and Near Infrared Spectroscopy for Rapid Analysis of Chrysin and Galangin in Chinese Propolis

by Pengcheng Nie^1,2, Zhengyan Xia³, Da-Wen Sun⁴ and Yong He^1,2,*

¹ College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China

² Cyrus Tang Center for Sensor Materials and Applications, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China

³ Zhejiang Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hangzhou 310023, China

⁴ Food Refrigeration and Computerised Food Technology (FRCFT), Agriculture & Food Science Centre, School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin, National University of Ireland, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10539-10549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810539 - 13 Aug 2013

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7099

Abstract

A novel method for the rapid determination of chrysin and galangin in Chinese propolis of poplar origin by means of visible and near infrared spectroscopy (Vis-NIR) was developed. Spectral data of 114 Chinese propolis samples were acquired in the 325 to 1,075 nm [...] Read more.

A novel method for the rapid determination of chrysin and galangin in Chinese propolis of poplar origin by means of visible and near infrared spectroscopy (Vis-NIR) was developed. Spectral data of 114 Chinese propolis samples were acquired in the 325 to 1,075 nm wavelength range using a Vis-NIR spectroradiometer. The reference values of chrysin and galangin of the samples were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Partial least squares (PLS) models were established using the spectra analyzed by different preprocessing methods. The effective wavelengths were selected by successive projections algorithm (SPA) and employed as the inputs of PLS, back propagation-artificial neural networks (BP-ANN), multiple linear regression (MLR) and least square-support vector machine (LS-SVM) models. The best results were achieved by SPA-BP-ANN models established with the Savitzky-Golay smoothing (SG) preprocessed spectra, where the r and RMSEP were 0.9823 and 1.5239 for galangin determination and 0.9668 and 2.4841 for chrysin determination, respectively. The results show that Vis-NIR demosntrates powerful capability for the rapid determination of chrysin and galangin contents in Chinese propolis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)

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11 pages, 879 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bandwidth Optimization Design of a Multi Degree of Freedom MEMS Gyroscope

by Chaowei Si^1,2, Guowei Han¹, Jin Ning^1,* and Fuhua Yang^1,*

¹ Institute of Semiconductors, Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100083, China

² Department of Electronic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10550-10560; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810550 - 14 Aug 2013

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7519

Abstract

A new robust multi-degree of freedom (multi-DOF) MEMS gyroscope is presented in this paper. The designed gyroscope has its bandwidth and amplification factor of the sense mode adjusted more easily than the previous reported multi-DOF MEMS gyroscopes. Besides, a novel spring system with [...] Read more.

A new robust multi-degree of freedom (multi-DOF) MEMS gyroscope is presented in this paper. The designed gyroscope has its bandwidth and amplification factor of the sense mode adjusted more easily than the previous reported multi-DOF MEMS gyroscopes. Besides, a novel spring system with very small coupling stiffness is proposed, which helps achieve a narrow bandwidth and a high amplification factor for a 2-DOF vibration system. A multi-DOF gyroscope with the proposed weak spring system is designed, and simulations indicate that when the operating frequency is set at 12.59 kHz, the flat frequency response region of the sense mode can be designed as narrow as 80 Hz, and the amplification factor of the sense mode at the operating frequency is up to 91, which not only protects the amplification factor from instability against process and temperature variations, but also sacrifices less performance. An experiment is also carried out to demonstrate the validity of the design. The multi-DOF gyroscope with the proposed weak coupling spring system is capable of achieving a good tradeoff between robustness and the performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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23 pages, 2210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gyroscope-Driven Mouse Pointer with an EMOTIV^® EEG Headset and Data Analysis Based on Empirical Mode Decomposition

by Gerardo Rosas-Cholula¹, Juan Manuel Ramirez-Cortes^1,*, Vicente Alarcon-Aquino², Pilar Gomez-Gil³, Jose De Jesus Rangel-Magdaleno¹ and Carlos Reyes-Garcia³

¹ Department of Electronics, National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics and Electronics, Luis Enrique Erro No. 1, Tonantzintla, Puebla 72760, Mexico

² Department of Electronics and Computer Science, Exhda. Sta. Catarina Martir, Cholula, University of the Americas, Puebla, Puebla 72720, Mexico

³ Department of Computer Science, National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics and Electronics, Luis Enrique Erro No. 1, Tonantzintla, Puebla 72760, Mexico

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10561-10583; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810561 - 14 Aug 2013

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 13662

Abstract

This paper presents a project on the development of a cursor control emulating the typical operations of a computer-mouse, using gyroscope and eye-blinking electromyographic signals which are obtained through a commercial 16-electrode wireless headset, recently released by Emotiv. The cursor position is controlled [...] Read more.

This paper presents a project on the development of a cursor control emulating the typical operations of a computer-mouse, using gyroscope and eye-blinking electromyographic signals which are obtained through a commercial 16-electrode wireless headset, recently released by Emotiv. The cursor position is controlled using information from a gyroscope included in the headset. The clicks are generated through the user’s blinking with an adequate detection procedure based on the spectral-like technique called Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD). EMD is proposed as a simple and quick computational tool, yet effective, aimed to artifact reduction from head movements as well as a method to detect blinking signals for mouse control. Kalman filter is used as state estimator for mouse position control and jitter removal. The detection rate obtained in average was 94.9%. Experimental setup and some obtained results are presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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15 pages, 2615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leg Edema Quantification for Heart Failure Patients via 3D Imaging

by Dieter Hayn^1,*, Friedrich Fruhwald^2,3, Arthur Riedel², Markus Falgenhauer¹ and Günter Schreier¹

¹ Safety and Security Department, AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Reininghausstr. 13, Graz 8020, Austria

² Department of Cardiology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 15, Graz 8036, Austria

³ Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Translational Heart Failure Research, Stiftingtalstrasse 24, Graz 8010, Austria

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10584-10598; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810584 - 14 Aug 2013

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8401

Abstract

Heart failure is a common cardiac disease in elderly patients. After discharge, approximately 50% of all patients are readmitted to a hospital within six months. Recent studies show that home monitoring of heart failure patients can reduce the number of readmissions. Still, a [...] Read more.

Heart failure is a common cardiac disease in elderly patients. After discharge, approximately 50% of all patients are readmitted to a hospital within six months. Recent studies show that home monitoring of heart failure patients can reduce the number of readmissions. Still, a large number of false positive alarms as well as underdiagnoses in other cases require more accurate alarm generation algorithms. New low-cost sensors for leg edema detection could be the missing link to help home monitoring to its breakthrough. We evaluated a 3D camera-based measurement setup in order to geometrically detect and quantify leg edemas. 3D images of legs were taken and geometric parameters were extracted semi-automatically from the images. Intra-subject variability for five healthy subjects was evaluated. Thereafter, correlation of 3D parameters with body weight and leg circumference was assessed during a clinical study at the Medical University of Graz. Strong correlation was found in between both reference values and instep height, while correlation in between curvature of the lower leg and references was very low. We conclude that 3D imaging might be a useful and cost-effective extension of home monitoring for heart failure patients, though further (prospective) studies are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Austria 2013)

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24 pages, 1120 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Performance Analysis of a Real-Time Integrated INS/GPS Vehicle Navigation System with Abnormal GPS Measurement Elimination

by Kai-Wei Chiang, Thanh Trung Duong^* and Jhen-Kai Liao

Department of Geomatics, National Cheng Kung University, 1 University Road, Tainan 701, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10599-10622; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810599 - 15 Aug 2013

Cited by 117 | Viewed by 16215

Abstract

The integration of an Inertial Navigation System (INS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS) is common in mobile mapping and navigation applications to seamlessly determine the position, velocity, and orientation of the mobile platform. In most INS/GPS integrated architectures, the GPS is considered [...] Read more.

The integration of an Inertial Navigation System (INS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS) is common in mobile mapping and navigation applications to seamlessly determine the position, velocity, and orientation of the mobile platform. In most INS/GPS integrated architectures, the GPS is considered to be an accurate reference with which to correct for the systematic errors of the inertial sensors, which are composed of biases, scale factors and drift. However, the GPS receiver may produce abnormal pseudo-range errors mainly caused by ionospheric delay, tropospheric delay and the multipath effect. These errors degrade the overall position accuracy of an integrated system that uses conventional INS/GPS integration strategies such as loosely coupled (LC) and tightly coupled (TC) schemes. Conventional tightly coupled INS/GPS integration schemes apply the Klobuchar model and the Hopfield model to reduce pseudo-range delays caused by ionospheric delay and tropospheric delay, respectively, but do not address the multipath problem. However, the multipath effect (from reflected GPS signals) affects the position error far more significantly in a consumer-grade GPS receiver than in an expensive, geodetic-grade GPS receiver. To avoid this problem, a new integrated INS/GPS architecture is proposed. The proposed method is described and applied in a real-time integrated system with two integration strategies, namely, loosely coupled and tightly coupled schemes, respectively. To verify the effectiveness of the proposed method, field tests with various scenarios are conducted and the results are compared with a reliable reference system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2011)

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36 pages, 1354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ESB-Based Sensor Web Integration for the Prediction of Electric Power Supply System Vulnerability

by Leonid Stoimenov^*, Milos Bogdanovic and Sanja Bogdanovic-Dinic

Faculty of Electronic Engineering, University of Niš, A. Medvedeva 14, Niš 18000, Serbia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10623-10658; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810623 - 15 Aug 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9424

Abstract

Electric power supply companies increasingly rely on enterprise IT systems to provide them with a comprehensive view of the state of the distribution network. Within a utility-wide network, enterprise IT systems collect data from various metering devices. Such data can be effectively used [...] Read more.

Electric power supply companies increasingly rely on enterprise IT systems to provide them with a comprehensive view of the state of the distribution network. Within a utility-wide network, enterprise IT systems collect data from various metering devices. Such data can be effectively used for the prediction of power supply network vulnerability. The purpose of this paper is to present the Enterprise Service Bus (ESB)-based Sensor Web integration solution that we have developed with the purpose of enabling prediction of power supply network vulnerability, in terms of a prediction of defect probability for a particular network element. We will give an example of its usage and demonstrate our vulnerability prediction model on data collected from two different power supply companies. The proposed solution is an extension of the GinisSense Sensor Web-based architecture for collecting, processing, analyzing, decision making and alerting based on the data received from heterogeneous data sources. In this case, GinisSense has been upgraded to be capable of operating in an ESB environment and combine Sensor Web and GIS technologies to enable prediction of electric power supply system vulnerability. Aside from electrical values, the proposed solution gathers ambient values from additional sensors installed in the existing power supply network infrastructure. GinisSense aggregates gathered data according to an adapted Omnibus data fusion model and applies decision-making logic on the aggregated data. Detected vulnerabilities are visualized to end-users through means of a specialized Web GIS application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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15 pages, 967 KiB

Open AccessReview

Integration of Metal Oxide Nanowires in Flexible Gas Sensing Devices

by Elisabetta Comini

Sensor, Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'informazione, Università di Brescia and CNR-IDASC, via Valotti 9, Brescia 25133, Italy

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10659-10673; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810659 - 15 Aug 2013

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 8864

Abstract

Metal oxide nanowires are very promising active materials for different applications, especially in the field of gas sensors. Advances in fabrication technologies now allow the preparation of nanowires on flexible substrates, expanding the potential market of the resulting sensors. The critical steps for [...] Read more.

Metal oxide nanowires are very promising active materials for different applications, especially in the field of gas sensors. Advances in fabrication technologies now allow the preparation of nanowires on flexible substrates, expanding the potential market of the resulting sensors. The critical steps for the large-scale preparation of reliable sensing devices are the elimination of high temperatures processes and the stretchability of the entire final device, including the active material. Direct growth on flexible substrates and post-growth procedures have been successfully used for the preparation of gas sensors. The paper will summarize the procedures used for the preparation of flexible and wearable gas sensors prototypes with an overlook of the challenges and the future perspectives concerning this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanotube and Nanowire Sensors)

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37 pages, 4250 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Sensor Placement for Multiple Target Positioning with Range-Only Measurements in Two-Dimensional Scenarios

by David Moreno-Salinas^1,*, Antonio M. Pascoal² and Joaquin Aranda¹

¹ Department of Computer Science and Automatic Control, National Distance Education University (UNED), Juan del Rosal 16, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Institute for Systems and Robotics (ISR), Instituto Superior Tecnico (IST), University of Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, Lisbon 1049-001, Portugal

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10674-10710; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810674 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 88 | Viewed by 9524

Abstract

The problem of determining the optimal geometric configuration of a sensor network that will maximize the range-related information available for multiple target positioning is of key importance in a multitude of application scenarios. In this paper, a set of sensors that measures the [...] Read more.

The problem of determining the optimal geometric configuration of a sensor network that will maximize the range-related information available for multiple target positioning is of key importance in a multitude of application scenarios. In this paper, a set of sensors that measures the distances between the targets and each of the receivers is considered, assuming that the range measurements are corrupted by white Gaussian noise, in order to search for the formation that maximizes the accuracy of the target estimates. Using tools from estimation theory and convex optimization, the problem is converted into that of maximizing, by proper choice of the sensor positions, a convex combination of the logarithms of the determinants of the Fisher Information Matrices corresponding to each of the targets in order to determine the sensor configuration that yields the minimum possible covariance of any unbiased target estimator. Analytical and numerical solutions are well defined and it is shown that the optimal configuration of the sensors depends explicitly on the constraints imposed on the sensor configuration, the target positions, and the probabilistic distributions that define the prior uncertainty in each of the target positions. Simulation examples illustrate the key results derived. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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14 pages, 452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Light-Addressed Electrodeposition of Enzyme-Entrapped Chitosan Membranes for Multiplexed Enzyme-Based Bioassays Using a Digital Micromirror Device

by Shih-Hao Huang^1,2,*

, Lu-Shiuan Wei¹, Hsiao-Tzu Chu¹ and Yeu-Long Jiang³

¹ Department of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202-24, Taiwan

² Center for Marine Mechatronic Systems, CMMS, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 202-24, Taiwan

³ Graduate Institute of Optoelectronic Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10711-10724; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810711 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7935

Abstract

This paper describes a light-addressed electrolytic system used to perform an electrodeposition of enzyme-entrapped chitosan membranes for multiplexed enzyme-based bioassays using a digital micromirror device (DMD). In this system, a patterned light illumination is projected onto a photoconductive substrate serving as a photo-cathode [...] Read more.

This paper describes a light-addressed electrolytic system used to perform an electrodeposition of enzyme-entrapped chitosan membranes for multiplexed enzyme-based bioassays using a digital micromirror device (DMD). In this system, a patterned light illumination is projected onto a photoconductive substrate serving as a photo-cathode to electrolytically produce hydroxide ions, which leads to an increased pH gradient. The high pH generated at the cathode can cause a local gelation of chitosan through sol-gel transition. By controlling the illumination pattern on the DMD, a light-addressed electrodeposition of chitosan membranes with different shapes and sizes, as well as multiplexed micropatterning, was performed. The effect of the illumination time of the light pattern on the dimensional resolution of chitosan membrane formation was examined experimentally. Moreover, multiplexed enzyme-based bioassay of enzyme-entrapped chitosan membranes was also successfully demonstrated through the electrodeposition of the chitosan membranes with various shapes/sizes and entrapping different enzymes. As a model experiment, glucose and ethanol were simultaneously detected in a single detection chamber without cross-talk using shape-coded chitosan membranes entrapped with glucose oxidase (GOX), peroxidase (POD), and Amplex Red (AmR) or alcohol oxidase (AOX), POD, and AmR by using same fluorescence indicator (AmR). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opto-Microfluidics for Bio Applications)

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24 pages, 1584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Temporal Stability for Coarse Scale Satellite Moisture Validation in the Maqu Area, Tibet

by Haris Akram Bhatti^1,2,*, Tom Rientjes¹, Wouter Verhoef¹ and Muhammad Yaseen^1,3

¹ Department of Water Resources, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente, Hengelosestraat 99, 7514 AE Enschede, The Netherlands

² Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi 75270, Pakistan

³ Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10725-10748; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810725 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6861

Abstract

This study evaluates if the temporal stability concept is applicable to a time series of satellite soil moisture images so to extend the common procedure of satellite image validation. The area of study is the Maqu area, which is located in the northeastern [...] Read more.

This study evaluates if the temporal stability concept is applicable to a time series of satellite soil moisture images so to extend the common procedure of satellite image validation. The area of study is the Maqu area, which is located in the northeastern part of the Tibetan plateau. The network serves validation purposes of coarse scale (25–50 km) satellite soil moisture products and comprises 20 stations with probes installed at depths of 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 cm. The study period is 2009. The temporal stability concept is applied to all five depths of the soil moisture measuring network and to a time series of satellite-based moisture products from the Advance Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR-E). The in-situ network is also assessed by Pearsons’s correlation analysis. Assessments by the temporal stability concept proved to be useful and results suggest that probe measurements at 10 cm depth best match to the satellite observations. The Mean Relative Difference plot for satellite pixels shows that a RMSM pixel can be identified but in our case this pixel does not overlay any in-situ station. Also, the RMSM pixel does not overlay any of the Representative Mean Soil Moisture (RMSM) stations of the five probe depths. Pearson’s correlation analysis on in-situ measurements suggests that moisture patterns over time are more persistent than over space. Since this study presents first results on the application of the temporal stability concept to a series of satellite images, we recommend further tests to become more conclusive on effectiveness to broaden the procedure of satellite validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PEDOT:PSS-Based Piezo-Resistive Sensors Applied to Reinforcement Glass Fibres for in Situ Measurement during the Composite Material Weaving Process

by Nicolas Trifigny^1,2,*, Fern M. Kelly^1,2, Cédric Cochrane^1,2, François Boussu^1,2, Vladan Koncar^1,2 and Damien Soulat^1,2

¹ Université de Lille Nord de France, Cité Scientifique, F-59000 Lille, France

² ENSAIT, GEMTEX, F-59100 Roubaix, France

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10749-10764; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810749 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8321

Abstract

The quality of fibrous reinforcements used in composite materials can be monitored during the weaving process. Fibrous sensors previously developed in our laboratory, based on PEDOT:PSS, have been adapted so as to directly measure the mechanical stress on fabrics under static or dynamic [...] Read more.

The quality of fibrous reinforcements used in composite materials can be monitored during the weaving process. Fibrous sensors previously developed in our laboratory, based on PEDOT:PSS, have been adapted so as to directly measure the mechanical stress on fabrics under static or dynamic conditions. The objective of our research has been to develop new sensor yarns, with the ability to locally detect mechanical stresses all along the warp or weft yarn. This local detection is undertaken inside the weaving loom in real time during the weaving process. Suitable electronic devices have been designed in order to record in situ measurements delivered by this new fibrous sensor yarn. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 3508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Pixel Sensor Array with Logarithmic Delta-Sigma Architecture

by Alireza Mahmoodi, Jing Li and Dileepan Joseph^*

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, 9107 116 Street NW, Edmonton, AB T6G 2V4, Canada

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10765-10782; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810765 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 10601

Abstract

Like the human eye, logarithmic image sensors achieve wide dynamic range easily at video rates, but, unlike the human eye, they suffer from low peak signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratios (PSNDRs). To improve the PSNDR, we propose integrating a delta-sigma analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in each pixel. [...] Read more.

Like the human eye, logarithmic image sensors achieve wide dynamic range easily at video rates, but, unlike the human eye, they suffer from low peak signal-to-noise-and-distortion ratios (PSNDRs). To improve the PSNDR, we propose integrating a delta-sigma analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in each pixel. An image sensor employing this architecture is designed, built and tested in 0.18 micron complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. It achieves a PSNDR better than state-of-the-art logarithmic sensors and comparable to the human eye. As the approach concerns an array of many ADCs, we use a small-area low-power delta-sigma design. For scalability, each pixel has its own decimator. The prototype is compared to a variety of other image sensors, linear and nonlinear, from industry and academia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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19 pages, 2899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic and Direct Identification of Blink Components from Scalp EEG

by Wanzeng Kong^1,2,*, Zhanpeng Zhou¹, Sanqing Hu¹, Jianhai Zhang¹, Fabio Babiloni^3,4

and Guojun Dai¹

¹ College of Computer Science, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China

² Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA

³ Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome 00185, Italy

⁴ IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, via Ardeatina 306, Rome 00179, Italy

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10783-10801; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810783 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 9043

Abstract

Eye blink is an important and inevitable artifact during scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) recording. The main problem in EEG signal processing is how to identify eye blink components automatically with independent component analysis (ICA). Taking into account the fact that the eye blink as [...] Read more.

Eye blink is an important and inevitable artifact during scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) recording. The main problem in EEG signal processing is how to identify eye blink components automatically with independent component analysis (ICA). Taking into account the fact that the eye blink as an external source has a higher sum of correlation with frontal EEG channels than all other sources due to both its location and significant amplitude, in this paper, we proposed a method based on correlation index and the feature of power distribution to automatically detect eye blink components. Furthermore, we prove mathematically that the correlation between independent components and scalp EEG channels can be translating directly from the mixing matrix of ICA. This helps to simplify calculations and understand the implications of the correlation. The proposed method doesn’t need to select a template or thresholds in advance, and it works without simultaneously recording an electrooculography (EOG) reference. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can automatically recognize eye blink components with a high accuracy on entire datasets from 15 subjects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensors and Systems)

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21 pages, 1722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Gaze Tracking Method Based on the Generation of Virtual Calibration Points

by Ji Woo Lee, Hwan Heo and Kang Ryoung Park^*

Division of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk University, 26 Pil-dong 3-ga, Jung-gu, Seoul 100-715, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10802-10822; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810802 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 9871

Abstract

Most conventional gaze-tracking systems require that users look at many points during the initial calibration stage, which is inconvenient for them. To avoid this requirement, we propose a new gaze-tracking method with four important characteristics. First, our gaze-tracking system uses a large screen [...] Read more.

Most conventional gaze-tracking systems require that users look at many points during the initial calibration stage, which is inconvenient for them. To avoid this requirement, we propose a new gaze-tracking method with four important characteristics. First, our gaze-tracking system uses a large screen located at a distance from the user, who wears a lightweight device. Second, our system requires that users look at only four calibration points during the initial calibration stage, during which four pupil centers are noted. Third, five additional points (virtual pupil centers) are generated with a multilayer perceptron using the four actual points (detected pupil centers) as inputs. Fourth, when a user gazes at a large screen, the shape defined by the positions of the four pupil centers is a distorted quadrangle because of the nonlinear movement of the human eyeball. The gaze-detection accuracy is reduced if we map the pupil movement area onto the screen area using a single transform function. We overcame this problem by calculating the gaze position based on multi-geometric transforms using the five virtual points and the four actual points. Experiment results show that the accuracy of the proposed method is better than that of other methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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21 pages, 523 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Methods for Sensing the Nitrogen Status in Plants: Advantages, Disadvantages and Recent Advances

by Rafael F. Muñoz-Huerta^1,*, Ramon G. Guevara-Gonzalez¹, Luis M. Contreras-Medina¹, Irineo Torres-Pacheco¹, Juan Prado-Olivarez² and Rosalia V. Ocampo-Velazquez^1,*

¹ Ingeniería de Biosistemas CA, División de Estudios de Posgrado, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Cerro de las Campanas S/N, 76010 Querétaro, Qro., Mexico

² Departamento de Ingeniería Electrónica, Instituto Tecnológico de Celaya, Av. Tecnológico y García Cubas S/N, 38010 Celaya, Gto., Mexico

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10823-10843; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810823 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 472 | Viewed by 33391

Abstract

Nitrogen (N) plays a key role in the plant life cycle. It is the main plant mineral nutrient needed for chlorophyll production and other plant cell components (proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids). Crop yield is affected by plant N status. Thus, the optimization [...] Read more.

Nitrogen (N) plays a key role in the plant life cycle. It is the main plant mineral nutrient needed for chlorophyll production and other plant cell components (proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids). Crop yield is affected by plant N status. Thus, the optimization of nitrogen fertilization has become the object of intense research due to its environmental and economic impact. This article focuses on reviewing current methods and techniques used to determine plant N status. Kjeldahl digestion and Dumas combustion have been used as reference methods for N determination in plants, but they are destructive and time consuming. By using spectroradiometers, reflectometers, imagery from satellite sensors and digital cameras, optical properties have been measured to estimate N in plants, such as crop canopy reflectance, leaf transmittance, chlorophyll and polyphenol fluorescence. High correlation has been found between optical parameters and plant N status, and those techniques are not destructive. However, some drawbacks include chlorophyll saturation, atmospheric and soil interference, and the high cost of instruments. Electrical properties of plant tissue have been used to estimate quality in fruits, and water content in plants, as well as nutrient deficiency, which suggests that they have potential for use in plant N determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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12 pages, 538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Principle Research on a Single Mass Piezoelectric Six-Degrees-of-Freedom Accelerometer

by Jun Liu^1,2,*, Min Li^1,2, Lan Qin^1,2 and Jingcheng Liu^1,2

¹ Key Laboratory of Optoelectronics Technology and Systems Ministry of Education, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

² College of Optoelectronic Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10844-10855; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810844 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7830

Abstract

A signal mass piezoelectric six-degrees-of-freedom (six-DOF) accelerometer is put forward in response to the need for health monitoring of the dynamic vibration characteristics of high grade digitally controlled machine tools. The operating principle of the piezoelectric six-degrees-of-freedom accelerometer is analyzed, and its structure [...] Read more.

A signal mass piezoelectric six-degrees-of-freedom (six-DOF) accelerometer is put forward in response to the need for health monitoring of the dynamic vibration characteristics of high grade digitally controlled machine tools. The operating principle of the piezoelectric six-degrees-of-freedom accelerometer is analyzed, and its structure model is constructed. The numerical simulation model (finite element model) of the six axis accelerometer is established. Piezoelectric quartz is chosen for the acceleration sensing element and conversion element, and its static sensitivity, static coupling interference and dynamic natural frequency, dynamic cross coupling are analyzed by ANSYS software. Research results show that the piezoelectric six-DOF accelerometer has advantages of simple and rational structure, correct sensing principle and mathematic model, good linearity, high rigidity, and theoretical natural frequency is more than 25 kHz, no nonlinear cross coupling and no complex decoupling work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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20 pages, 894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tacholess Envelope Order Analysis and Its Application to Fault Detection of Rolling Element Bearings with Varying Speeds

by Ming Zhao¹, Jing Lin^1,2,*, Xiaoqiang Xu¹ and Yaguo Lei^1,2

¹ School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China

² State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10856-10875; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810856 - 16 Aug 2013

Cited by 150 | Viewed by 12789

Abstract

Vibration analysis is an effective tool for the condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of rolling element bearings. Conventional diagnostic methods are based on the stationary assumption, thus they are not applicable to the diagnosis of bearings working under varying speed. This constraint limits [...] Read more.

Vibration analysis is an effective tool for the condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of rolling element bearings. Conventional diagnostic methods are based on the stationary assumption, thus they are not applicable to the diagnosis of bearings working under varying speed. This constraint limits the bearing diagnosis to the industrial application significantly. In order to extend the conventional diagnostic methods to speed variation cases, a tacholess envelope order analysis technique is proposed in this paper. In the proposed technique, a tacholess order tracking (TLOT) method is first introduced to extract the tachometer information from the vibration signal itself. On this basis, an envelope order spectrum (EOS) is utilized to recover the bearing characteristic frequencies in the order domain. By combining the advantages of TLOT and EOS, the proposed technique is capable of detecting bearing faults under varying speeds, even without the use of a tachometer. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated by both simulated signals and real vibration signals collected from locomotive roller bearings with faults on inner race, outer race and rollers, respectively. Analyzed results show that the proposed method could identify different bearing faults effectively and accurately under speed varying conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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32 pages, 1748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Online Analysis of Local Feature Detectors and Their Complementarity

by Shoaib Ehsan^*, Adrian F. Clark and Klaus D. McDonald-Maier

School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10876-10907; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810876 - 19 Aug 2013

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6740

Abstract

A vision system that can assess its own performance and take appropriate actions online to maximize its effectiveness would be a step towards achieving the long-cherished goal of imitating humans. This paper proposes a method for performing an online performance analysis of local [...] Read more.

A vision system that can assess its own performance and take appropriate actions online to maximize its effectiveness would be a step towards achieving the long-cherished goal of imitating humans. This paper proposes a method for performing an online performance analysis of local feature detectors, the primary stage of many practical vision systems. It advocates the spatial distribution of local image features as a good performance indicator and presents a metric that can be calculated rapidly, concurs with human visual assessments and is complementary to existing offline measures such as repeatability. The metric is shown to provide a measure of complementarity for combinations of detectors, correctly reflecting the underlying principles of individual detectors. Qualitative results on well-established datasets for several state-of-the-art detectors are presented based on the proposed measure. Using a hypothesis testing approach and a newly-acquired, larger image database, statistically-significant performance differences are identified. Different detector pairs and triplets are examined quantitatively and the results provide a useful guideline for combining detectors in applications that require a reasonable spatial distribution of image features. A principled framework for combining feature detectors in these applications is also presented. Timing results reveal the potential of the metric for online applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in the UK 2013)

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23 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Continuous Wavelet Transform Analysis of Acceleration Signals Measured from a Wave Buoy

by Laurence Zsu-Hsin Chuang¹, Li-Chung Wu^2,* and Jong-Hao Wang³

¹ Institute of Ocean Technology and Marine Affairs, National Cheng Kung University, 1, Da-Hsueh Rd., Tainan 70101, Taiwan

² Coastal Ocean Monitoring Center, National Cheng Kung University, 1, Da-Hsueh Rd., Tainan 70101, Taiwan

³ Water Resources Agency, Ministry of Economic Affairs, 9-12F, 41-3 Sec.3 Hsin-Yi Rd., Taipei 10651, Taiwan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10908-10930; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810908 - 19 Aug 2013

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7030

Abstract

Accelerometers, which can be installed inside a floating platform on the sea, are among the most commonly used sensors for operational ocean wave measurements. To examine the non-stationary features of ocean waves, this study was conducted to derive a wavelet spectrum of ocean [...] Read more.

Accelerometers, which can be installed inside a floating platform on the sea, are among the most commonly used sensors for operational ocean wave measurements. To examine the non-stationary features of ocean waves, this study was conducted to derive a wavelet spectrum of ocean waves and to synthesize sea surface elevations from vertical acceleration signals of a wave buoy through the continuous wavelet transform theory. The short-time wave features can be revealed by simultaneously examining the wavelet spectrum and the synthetic sea surface elevations. The in situ wave signals were applied to verify the practicality of the wavelet-based algorithm. We confirm that the spectral leakage and the noise at very-low-frequency bins influenced the accuracies of the estimated wavelet spectrum and the synthetic sea surface elevations. The appropriate thresholds of these two factors were explored. To study the short-time wave features from the wave records, the acceleration signals recorded from an accelerometer inside a discus wave buoy are analysed. The results from the wavelet spectrum show the evidence of short-time nonlinear wave events. Our study also reveals that more surface profiles with higher vertical asymmetry can be found from short-time nonlinear wave with stronger harmonic spectral peak. Finally, we conclude that the algorithms of continuous wavelet transform are practical for revealing the short-time wave features of the buoy acceleration signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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13 pages, 1080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Practical Data Recovery Technique for Long-Term Strain Monitoring of Mega Columns during Construction

by Se Woon Choi, EunMi Kwon, Yousok Kim, Kappyo Hong and Hyo Seon Park^*

Department of Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 110-732, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10931-10943; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810931 - 19 Aug 2013

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6462

Abstract

A practical data recovery method is proposed for the strain data lost during the safety monitoring of mega columns. The analytical relations among the measured strains are derived to recover the data lost due to unexpected errors in long-term measurement during construction. The [...] Read more.

A practical data recovery method is proposed for the strain data lost during the safety monitoring of mega columns. The analytical relations among the measured strains are derived to recover the data lost due to unexpected errors in long-term measurement during construction. The proposed technique is applied to recovery of axial strain data of a mega column in an irregular building structure during construction. The axial strain monitoring using the wireless strain sensing system was carried out for one year and five months between 23 July 2010 and 22 February 2012. During the long-term strain sensing, three different types of measurement errors occurred. Using the recovery technique, the strain data that could not be measured at different intervals in the measurement were successfully recovered. It is confirmed that the problems that may occur during long-term wireless strain sensing of mega columns during construction could be resolved through the proposed recovery method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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10 pages, 766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Minimum Detectable Air Velocity by Thermal Flow Sensors

by Safir Issa^* and Walter Lang

IMSAS (Institute for Microsensors, Actuators and Systems), Microsystems Center Bremen (MCB), University of Bremen, Otto-Hahn-Allee, Bld. NW1, Bremen D-28359, Germany

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10944-10953; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810944 - 19 Aug 2013

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6809

Abstract

Miniaturized thermal flow sensors have opened the doors for a large variety of new applications due to their small size, high sensitivity and low power consumption. Theoretically, very small detection limits of air velocity of some micrometers per second are achievable. However, the [...] Read more.

Miniaturized thermal flow sensors have opened the doors for a large variety of new applications due to their small size, high sensitivity and low power consumption. Theoretically, very small detection limits of air velocity of some micrometers per second are achievable. However, the superimposed free convection is the main obstacle which prevents reaching these expected limits. Furthermore, experimental investigations are an additional challenge since it is difficult to generate very low flows. In this paper, we introduce a physical method, capable of generating very low flow values in the mixed convection region. Additionally, we present the sensor characteristic curves at the zero flow case and in the mixed convection region. Results show that the estimated minimum detectable air velocity by the presented method is 0.8 mm/s. The equivalent air velocity to the noise level of the sensor at the zero flow case is about 0.13 mm/s. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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27 pages, 655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Support of Scientific Workflows over Pub/Sub Brokers

by Augusto Morales^*, Tomas Robles, Ramon Alcarria

and Edwin Cedeño

Department of Telematics Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Av. Complutense 30, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10954-10980; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810954 - 20 Aug 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8043

Abstract

The execution of scientific workflows is gaining importance as more computing resources are available in the form of grid environments. The Publish/Subscribe paradigm offers well-proven solutions for sustaining distributed scenarios while maintaining the high level of task decoupling required by scientific workflows. In [...] Read more.

The execution of scientific workflows is gaining importance as more computing resources are available in the form of grid environments. The Publish/Subscribe paradigm offers well-proven solutions for sustaining distributed scenarios while maintaining the high level of task decoupling required by scientific workflows. In this paper, we propose a new model for supporting scientific workflows that improves the dissemination of control events. The proposed solution is based on the mapping of workflow tasks to the underlying Pub/Sub event layer, and the definition of interfaces and procedures for execution on brokers. In this paper we also analyze the strengths and weaknesses of current solutions that are based on existing message exchange models for scientific workflows. Finally, we explain how our model improves the information dissemination, event filtering, task decoupling and the monitoring of scientific workflows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Select papers from UCAmI & IWAAL 2012 - the 6th International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing and Ambient Intelligence & 4th International Workshop on Ambient Assisted Living (UCAmI & IWAAL 2012))

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26 pages, 539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature-Compensated Clock Skew Adjustment

by Jose María Castillo-Secilla^*, Jose Manuel Palomares

and Joaquín Olivares

Computer Architecture, Electronics and E.T., University of Córdoba, Córdoba 14071, Spain

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 10981-11006; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130810981 - 20 Aug 2013

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7705

Abstract

This work analyzes several drift compensation mechanisms in wireless sensor networks (WSN). Temperature is an environmental factor that greatly affects oscillators shipped in every WSN mote. This behavior creates the need of improving drift compensation mechanisms in synchronization protocols. Using the Flooding Time [...] Read more.

This work analyzes several drift compensation mechanisms in wireless sensor networks (WSN). Temperature is an environmental factor that greatly affects oscillators shipped in every WSN mote. This behavior creates the need of improving drift compensation mechanisms in synchronization protocols. Using the Flooding Time Synchronization Protocol (FTSP), this work demonstrates that crystal oscillators are affected by temperature variations. Thus, the influence of temperature provokes a low performance of FTSP in changing conditions of temperature. This article proposes an innovative correction factor that minimizes the impact of temperature in the clock skew. By means of this factor, two new mechanisms are proposed in this paper: the Adjusted Temperature (AT) and the Advanced Adjusted Temperature (A2T). These mechanisms have been combined with FTSP to produce AT-FTSP and A2T-FTSP. Both have been tested in a network of TelosB motes running TinyOS. Results show that both AT-FTSP and A2T-FTSP improve the average synchronization errors compared to FTSP and other temperature-compensated protocols (Environment-Aware Clock Skew Estimation and Synchronization for WSN (EACS) and Temperature Compensated Time Synchronization (TCTS)). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology in Spain 2013)

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25 pages, 1218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Analysis between Active and Passive Techniques for Underwater 3D Reconstruction of Close-Range Objects

by Gianfranco Bianco^*, Alessandro Gallo, Fabio Bruno and Maurizio Muzzupappa

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Calabria, Via P. Bucci 46/C–Rende, Cosenza 87036, Italy

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11007-11031; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811007 - 20 Aug 2013

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 11499

Abstract

In some application fields, such as underwater archaeology or marine biology, there is the need to collect three-dimensional, close-range data from objects that cannot be removed from their site. In particular, 3D imaging techniques are widely employed for close-range acquisitions in underwater environment. [...] Read more.

In some application fields, such as underwater archaeology or marine biology, there is the need to collect three-dimensional, close-range data from objects that cannot be removed from their site. In particular, 3D imaging techniques are widely employed for close-range acquisitions in underwater environment. In this work we have compared in water two 3D imaging techniques based on active and passive approaches, respectively, and whole-field acquisition. The comparison is performed under poor visibility conditions, produced in the laboratory by suspending different quantities of clay in a water tank. For a fair comparison, a stereo configuration has been adopted for both the techniques, using the same setup, working distance, calibration, and objects. At the moment, the proposed setup is not suitable for real world applications, but it allowed us to conduct a preliminary analysis on the performances of the two techniques and to understand their capability to acquire 3D points in presence of turbidity. The performances have been evaluated in terms of accuracy and density of the acquired 3D points. Our results can be used as a reference for further comparisons in the analysis of other 3D techniques and algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photodetectors)

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19 pages, 228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy-Efficient Cognitive Radio Sensor Networks: Parametric and Convex Transformations

by Muhammad Naeem^1,2, Kandasamy Illanko¹, Ashok Karmokar¹, Alagan Anpalagan^1,* and Muhammad Jaseemuddin¹

¹ ELCE Department, Ryerson University, 350- Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada

² Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of IT, Wah Campus, Wah, Pakistan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11032-11050; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811032 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 7118

Abstract

Designing energy-efficient cognitive radio sensor networks is important to intelligently use battery energy and to maximize the sensor network life. In this paper, the problem of determining the power allocation that maximizes the energy-efficiency of cognitive radio-based wireless sensor networks is formed as [...] Read more.

Designing energy-efficient cognitive radio sensor networks is important to intelligently use battery energy and to maximize the sensor network life. In this paper, the problem of determining the power allocation that maximizes the energy-efficiency of cognitive radio-based wireless sensor networks is formed as a constrained optimization problem, where the objective function is the ratio of network throughput and the network power. The proposed constrained optimization problem belongs to a class of nonlinear fractional programming problems. Charnes-Cooper Transformation is used to transform the nonlinear fractional problem into an equivalent concave optimization problem. The structure of the power allocation policy for the transformed concave problem is found to be of a water-filling type. The problem is also transformed into a parametric form for which a ε-optimal iterative solution exists. The convergence of the iterative algorithms is proven, and numerical solutions are presented. The iterative solutions are compared with the optimal solution obtained from the transformed concave problem, and the effects of different system parameters (interference threshold level, the number of primary users and secondary sensor nodes) on the performance of the proposed algorithms are investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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18 pages, 993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Measurement of Phase Difference for Micromachined Gyros Driven by Rotating Aircraft

by Zengping Zhang¹, Fuxue Zhang^2,* and Wei Zhang²

¹ School of Electronic Engineering, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China

² Sensing Technique Research Center, Beijing Information Science and Technology University, Beijing 100101, China

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11051-11068; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811051 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8012

Abstract

This paper presents an approach for realizing a phase difference measurement of a new gyro. A silicon micromachined gyro was mounted on rotating aircraft for aircraft attitude control. Aircraft spin drives the silicon pendulum of a gyro rotating at a high speed so [...] Read more.

This paper presents an approach for realizing a phase difference measurement of a new gyro. A silicon micromachined gyro was mounted on rotating aircraft for aircraft attitude control. Aircraft spin drives the silicon pendulum of a gyro rotating at a high speed so that it can sense the transverse angular velocity of the rotating aircraft based on the gyroscopic precession principle when the aircraft has transverse rotation. In applications of the rotating aircraft single channel control system, such as damping in the attitude stabilization loop, the gyro signal must be kept in sync with the control signal. Therefore, the phase difference between both signals needs to be measured accurately. Considering that phase difference is mainly produced by both the micromachined part and the signal conditioning circuit, a mathematical model has been established and analyzed to determine the gyro’s phase frequency characteristics. On the basis of theoretical analysis, a dynamic simulation has been done for a case where the spin frequency is 15 Hz. Experimental results with the proposed measurement method applied to a silicon micromachined gyro driven by a rotating aircraft demonstrate that it is effective in practical applications. Measured curve and numerical analysis of phase frequency characteristic are in accordance, and the error between measurement and simulation is only 5.3%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling, Testing and Reliability Issues in MEMS Engineering 2013)

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16 pages, 1091 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modulated Acquisition of Spatial Distortion Maps

by Alexey Volkov^1,*, Jerneja Žganec Gros¹

, Mario Žganec¹, Tomaž Javornik² and Aleš Švigelj²

¹ Alpineon d.o.o., Ul. Iga Grudna 15, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia

² Jožef Stefan Institute and Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Jamova c. 39, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11069-11084; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811069 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6113

Abstract

This work discusses a novel approach to image acquisition which improves the robustness of captured data required for 3D range measurements. By applying a pseudo-random code modulation to sequential acquisition of projected patterns the impact of environmental factors such as ambient light and [...] Read more.

This work discusses a novel approach to image acquisition which improves the robustness of captured data required for 3D range measurements. By applying a pseudo-random code modulation to sequential acquisition of projected patterns the impact of environmental factors such as ambient light and mutual interference is significantly reduced. The proposed concept has been proven with an experimental range sensor based on the laser triangulation principle. The proposed design can potentially enhance the use of this principle to a variety of outdoor applications, such as autonomous vehicles, pedestrians’ safety, collision avoidance, and many other tasks, where robust real-time distance detection in real world environment is crucial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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12 pages, 902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Algorithm to Generate a Wi-Fi Fingerprint Database for Indoor Positioning

by Lina Chen^1,2,3,*, Binghao Li³, Kai Zhao³, Chris Rizos³ and Zhengqi Zheng¹

¹ College of Information Science and Technology, East China Normal University, Dongchuang Road 500, Shanghai 200241, China

² College of Mathematics, Physics and Information Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Yingbin Road 688, Jinhua 321004, China

³ School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australian

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11085-11096; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811085 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 11314

Abstract

The major problem of Wi-Fi fingerprint-based positioning technology is the signal strength fingerprint database creation and maintenance. The significant temporal variation of received signal strength (RSS) is the main factor responsible for the positioning error. A probabilistic approach can be used, but the [...] Read more.

The major problem of Wi-Fi fingerprint-based positioning technology is the signal strength fingerprint database creation and maintenance. The significant temporal variation of received signal strength (RSS) is the main factor responsible for the positioning error. A probabilistic approach can be used, but the RSS distribution is required. The Gaussian distribution or an empirically-derived distribution (histogram) is typically used. However, these distributions are either not always correct or require a large amount of data for each reference point. Double peaks of the RSS distribution have been observed in experiments at some reference points. In this paper a new algorithm based on an improved double-peak Gaussian distribution is proposed. Kurtosis testing is used to decide if this new distribution, or the normal Gaussian distribution, should be applied. Test results show that the proposed algorithm can significantly improve the positioning accuracy, as well as reduce the workload of the off-line data training phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 1506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical-Based Artificial Palpation Sensors for Lesion Characterization

by Jong-Ha Lee¹

, Yoon Nyun Kim², Jeonghun Ku¹ and Hee-Jun Park^1,*

¹ Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Keimyung University, 1095, Dalgubeol-daero, Daegu 704-701, Korea

² Department of Internal Medicine, Dongsan Medical Center, Keimyung University, 1095, Dalgubeol-daero, Daegu 704-701, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11097-11113; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811097 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6570

Abstract

Palpation techniques are widely used in medical procedures to detect the presence of lumps or tumors in the soft breast tissues. Since these procedures are very subjective and depend on the skills of the physician, it is imperative to perform detailed a scientific [...] Read more.

Palpation techniques are widely used in medical procedures to detect the presence of lumps or tumors in the soft breast tissues. Since these procedures are very subjective and depend on the skills of the physician, it is imperative to perform detailed a scientific study in order to develop more efficient medical sensors to measure and generate palpation parameters. In this research, we propose an optical-based, artificial palpation sensor for lesion characterization. This has been developed using a multilayer polydimethylsiloxane optical waveguide. Light was generated at the critical angle to reflect totally within the flexible and transparent waveguide. When a waveguide was compressed by an external force, its contact area would deform and cause the light to scatter. The scattered light was captured by a high-resolution camera and saved as an image format. To test the performance of the proposed system, we used a realistic tissue phantom with embedded hard inclusions. The experimental results show that the proposed sensor can detect inclusions and provide the relative value of size, depth, and Young’s modulus of an inclusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)

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14 pages, 1282 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Textile-Based Weft Knitted Strain Sensors: Effect of Fabric Parameters on Sensor Properties

by Ozgur Atalay^1,*, William Richard Kennon¹ and Muhammad Dawood Husain²

¹ School of Materials, University of Manchester, Manchester, M60 1QD, UK

² Department of Textile Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, University Road 75270, Karachi, Pakistan

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11114-11127; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811114 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 138 | Viewed by 17637

Abstract

The design and development of textile-based strain sensors has been a focus of research and many investigators have studied this subject. This paper presents a new textile-based strain sensor design and shows the effect of base fabric parameters on its sensing properties. Sensing [...] Read more.

The design and development of textile-based strain sensors has been a focus of research and many investigators have studied this subject. This paper presents a new textile-based strain sensor design and shows the effect of base fabric parameters on its sensing properties. Sensing fabric could be used to measure articulations of the human body in the real environment. The strain sensing fabric was produced by using electronic flat-bed knitting technology; the base fabric was produced with elastomeric yarns in an interlock arrangement and a conductive yarn was embedded in this substrate to create a series of single loop structures. Experimental results show that there is a strong relationship between base fabric parameters and sensor properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing the Simulation Speed of Sensor Network Applications by Asynchronization of Interrupt Service Routines

by Hyunwoo Joe¹, Duk-Kyun Woo² and Hyungshin Kim^1,*

¹ Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseoung-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Korea

² Embedded Software Research Division, Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI), 218 Gajeng-ro, Yuseoung-gu, Daejeon 305-700, Korea

Sensors 2013, 13(8), 11128-11145; https://doi.org/10.3390/s130811128 - 21 Aug 2013

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6384

Abstract

Sensor network simulations require high fidelity and timing accuracy to be used as an implementation and evaluation tool. The cycle-accurate and instruction-level simulator is the known solution for these purposes. However, this type of simulation incurs a high computation cost since it has [...] Read more.

Sensor network simulations require high fidelity and timing accuracy to be used as an implementation and evaluation tool. The cycle-accurate and instruction-level simulator is the known solution for these purposes. However, this type of simulation incurs a high computation cost since it has to model not only the instruction level behavior but also the synchronization between multiple sensors for their causality. This paper presents a novel technique that exploits asynchronous simulations of interrupt service routines (ISR). We can avoid the synchronization overheads when the interrupt service routines are simulated without preemption. If the causality errors occur, we devise a rollback procedure to restore the original synchronized simulation. This concept can be extended to any instruction-level sensor network simulator. Evaluation results show our method can enhance the simulation speed up to 52% in the case of our experiments. For applications with longer interrupt service routines and smaller number of preemptions, the speedup becomes greater. In addition, our simulator is 2 to 11 times faster than the well-known sensor network simulator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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