Current and Near-Term Earth-Observing Environmental Satellites, Their Missions, Characteristics, Instruments, and Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. International Recognition and Cooperation towards Documenting Planet Earth
1.2. The Rationale for More Sophisticated Space-Based Surveillance of Our Earth System
1.3. Materials and Methods
2. Background: EO Satellites
2.1. Primary Types of Orbiting Instruments
2.1.1. Passive Imagers
2.1.2. Active Instruments
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) Imagers
Radar and Microwave Imagers
2.2. Types of Satellite Orbits
2.3. Statistics on Current Satellites in Orbit
3. High-Impact Pioneering Satellites from the 1970s to the Early 2000s
3.1. The AVHRR on the NOAA POES and EUMETSAT METOP Satellites
3.2. The METOP-A Satellite (2006–2021)
3.3. The European Remote-Sensing Satellites: ERS-1 and ERS-2
3.4. The Project for On-Board Autonomy-1 (PROBA-1)
3.5. Envisat: ESA’s Pioneering Atmospheric and Land Platform
3.5.1. Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS)
3.5.2. Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric CartograpHY (SCIAMACHY)
3.6. The JAXA Greenhouse Gas Observatory Satellites (GOSAT’s 1 and 2)
3.7. NASA/USGS Landsat-7, the Last of the Thematic Mapper Series
4. Pioneering NASA Missions, EOS-1 and the EOS Flagship Satellites from Early 2000s
4.1. NASA’s Demonstration Satellite, Earth Observing 1 (EO-1)
4.1.1. Hyperion on EO-1
4.1.2. Advanced Line Imager on EO-1
4.2. EOS Flagships: Missions Expected to End in 2025–2027
4.2.1. Terra
4.2.2. Aqua Flagship
4.2.3. Aura Flagship
4.3. Some Important Instruments Carried on the NASA Flagships
4.3.1. MODIS (MODerate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer)
4.3.2. CERES (Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System)
4.3.3. Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
4.3.4. Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR)
4.3.5. AIRS (Atmospheric Infrared Sounder)
4.3.6. TES (Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer)
4.4. The International A-Train
5. Important Research Satellites Launched since 2010
5.1. Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)
5.2. GRACE FOLLOW-ON (GRACE-FO)
5.3. Aquarius/SAC-D Oceanography Pathfinder
5.4. NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP)
5.5. Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT)
5.6. Global Precipitation Mission
5.7. NASA’s First LiDAR Mission: ICESat
5.8. Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESAT-2)
5.9. NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2)
5.10. Second-Generation Atmospheric Chemistry: Sentinel-5P
6. ESA’s Modern Research Satellites: The Earth Explorer (EE) Program
6.1. Earth Explorer-5 Atmospheric Dynamics Mission—Aeolus
6.2. Earth Explorer-2 (EE-2) Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS)
6.3. Earth Explorer-4 SWARM
7. The Operational Satellites
7.1. Operational USA Polar-Orbiting Satellites
7.1.1. Landsat’s Operational Multispectral Imagers
7.1.2. VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite)
7.1.3. VIIRS on NOAA 20 and 21
7.2. The Operational E.U. Polar Orbiting Copernicus Sentinel Satellites
7.2.1. The Sentinel-1 Satellites
7.2.2. The Sentinel-2 Multispectral Imagers (MSI)
7.2.3. Harmonized Landsat-8 and L-9 and Sentinel-2 (A, B) Data
7.3. Sentinel-3 Hyperspectral Imager Constellation
7.3.1. The Ocean and Land Color Instrument (OLCI) Imager
7.3.2. The Sea and Land Surface Temperature Radiometer (SLSTR)
7.3.3. Three Instruments That Provide High Precision Onboard Orbit Tracking on Sentinel-3
7.4. Sentinel-4, -5P, and -5 Satellites
7.5. Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich
8. A New Generation of Imaging Spectrometers: Europe’s Pioneers
8.1. PRecursore IperSpettraie Della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA)
8.2. Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP)
9. The International Space Station (ISS) Hosts Experimental Instruments from a Non-Polar Orbit
9.1. Experimental Missions from a Non-Plar Orbit for Advancing Earth Remote Sensing from the ISS
9.2. DLR’s Earth Sensing Imaging Spectrometer (DESIS)
9.3. The Hyperspectral Imager Suite (HISUI)
9.4. The Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT)
9.5. The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-3)
9.6. ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on the Space Station (ECOTRESS)
9.7. The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI)
10. Commercial Sector: High-Spatial-Resolution Multispectral Imagers and Imaging Spectrometers
10.1. The Satellite Pour L’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) 6/7
10.2. Pléiades 1A and 1B Satellites
10.3. Pléiades NEO
10.4. TanDEM-X
10.5. Planet Scope Constellations
11. Second and Third-Generation Geostationary Satellites
11.1. The Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) and the Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI)
11.2. The Lightning Imagers on the GOES 16, 18 and the MTG-I1
11.3. EUMETSAT METOP Third-Generation Satellite-Imager (MTG-I)
11.4. EUMETSAT MetOp Third-Generation Satellite Sounder (MTG-S)
11.5. Sentinel-4 on the MTG-S-I
12. There Are 90 EO Satellites Still in Orbit at the Beginning of 2024 for Science and Applications
12.1. Satellites Whose Primary Instrument Is a VSWIR Imaging Spectrometer
12.2. Satellites Whose Primary Instrument Is a Moderate-Spatial-Resolution Multispectral Imager
12.3. Satellites Whose Primary Instrument Is a Coarse Spatial Resolution Multispectral Imager
12.4. Satellites Whose Primary Instrument Is a Non-Imaging Spectrometer
12.5. Satellites Whose Primary Instrument Is an Active System
12.6. Passive Coarse Spatial Resolution Multispectral Observations from GEO
12.7. Experimental Instruments on the International Space Station
12.8. High-Spatial-Resolution Commercial Satellites That Are Used for Earth Science
13. Starting in 2024, the Next Imaging Spectrometers
13.1. The Transition to New Satellites in 2024
13.2. The Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, Ocean, Ecosystem (PACE)
13.3. The Carbon Mapper
13.4. The MethaneSat Satellite
13.5. Thermal Infrared Imaging Satellite for High-Resolution Natural Resource Assessment (TRISHNA)
13.6. NASA-Indian Space Research Organization SAR (NISAR)
14. Second-Generation EO Polar Weather Satellites: METOP SG-1A and SG-1B
14.1. METOP SG-1A
14.2. MetOp-SG-1B
14.3. Sentintel-5
15. New ESA Earth Explorer Satellites Expected between 2024 and 2026
15.1. ESA’s 6th Earth Explorer Mission: Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiation (EarthCARE)
15.2. ESA’s 7th Earth Explorer Mission: Biomass
15.3. ESA’s 8th Earth Explorer Mission: FLuorescence EXplorer (FLEX)
15.4. Earth Explorer-10 Harmony
16. Recommended Science Priorities to NASA in the 2017 Decadal Survey
16.1. Surface Biology and Geology (SBG) Mission
16.1.1. Surface Biology and Geology: SBG-VSWIR
16.1.2. Surface Biology and Geology: SBG-TIR
16.2. Mass Change (MC) and Geosciences International Constellation (MAGIC)
16.3. Surface Deformation and Change (SDC)
16.4. The Atmosphere-Observing System (AOS)
17. The Copernicus Expansion Missions
17.1. The Copernicus Carbon Dioxide Monitoring Mission (CO2M)
17.2. The Copernicus Hyperspectral Imaging Mission for the Environment (CHIME)
17.3. The Copernicus Land Surface Temperature Monitoring Mission (LSTM)
17.4. The Copernicus Observation System for Europe, ROSE-L
17.5. The Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer (CIMR)
17.6. The Copernicus Polar Ice and Snow Topography Altimeter (CRISTAL)
18. The Satellites Coming in 2025 and into the 2030s
18.1. Japanese GOSAT-GW
18.2. WildFireSat (Canada/Planning Phase)
18.3. The Fourth-Generation HIMAWARI-10 Geostationary Satellite
18.4. The Fourth-Generation NOAA GeoXO Imager (GXI)
18.5. The Next Landsat: “Landsat Next” (the Future Landsat-10)
19. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Band | W | Ka | K | Ku | X | C | S | L | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency, GHz | 75–100 | 40–100 | 18–26.5 | 12.5–18 | 8.0–12.5 | 3.90–8.0 | 1.55–3.90 | 0.39–1.55 | 0.216–0.45 |
Wavelength, cm | 0.27–0.40 | 0.30–0.75 | 1.67–1.11 | 1.7–2.4 | 2.4–3.75 | 3.75–7.5 | 7.5–5 | 15–30 | 30–130 |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date(s) | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV 350–400 nm; VNIR 400–1500 nm; GSD km | SWIR, 1500–2500 nm, GSD km | Mid-IR 3.0–6.0 μm, TIR, 6–15.0 μm, GSD km |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NOAA TIROS-N AVHRR-1 | 1978–1981 | polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 850 | 2900 | 14:30A | 615 nm, 912 nm @ 1.1 km | -- | 3.74 μm 11.0 μm @ 1.1 km |
NOAA 6, 8, 10 AVHRR | 1979–1987 1983–1985 1986–2001 | polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 840, 820 810 | ~2700 | 14:30A 07:30D 07:30D | 615, 912 nm @1.1 km | -- | 3.74 μm, 11.0 μm @1.1 km |
NOAA 7, 9, 11, 12, 14 AVHRR/2 | 1986–2001 1988–2004 1991–2007 1994–2007 | polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 860, 850 843 804, 844 | 3000 | 14:30A 14:30A 04:10A 05:10A 09:30A | 615, 912 nm @1.1 km, | -- | 3.74, 10.8, 12.0 μm @1.1 km |
NOAA 15,16, 17, 18,19 AVHRR-3 | 1998–2024 2000–2014 2005–2024 2009–2024 | polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 813 810 854 870 | 3000 | 07:29D 09:03D 10:34D 08:22D | 630, 862 nm @1.1 km | 1.61 μm @1.1km | 3.74, 10.80, 12.00 μm @1.1 km |
METOP-A, B, C, AVHRR-3 | 2006–2021 2012–2024 2018–2027 | polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 827 827 817 | 3000 | 07:50D 09:31D 09:31D | 630, 862 nm @1.1 km | 1.61 μm @1.1 km | 3.74, 10.8, 12.0 μm @1.1 km |
Satellite Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV 240–400 nm, VNIR, 400–1500 nm, SWIR 1500–2500 nm; GSD m | MidIR 3.0–6.0 TIR 6.0–15.0 μm, GSD | Radar and Microwave |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ATSR/ERS 1 ATSAR-2/ERS-2 | 1991–2000, 1995–2008 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 785 | 500 | 3 d TIR & 6 d SWIR, 3 d NIR & 6 d VIS | 10:30D | ATSR-2: 550, 659, 865 nm; ATSR-1 &-2: 1610 nm @ 1 km GSD | ATSR-1 & -2: 3.70, 10.85, 12.00 μm @ 1 km GSD | ATSR-1, microwave sounder 23.8, 35.6 GHz @ 1 km GSD |
GOME/ ERS-2 | 1995–2008 | polar LEO Sun synchronous | 785 | 120 or 960 | 3 d NIR & 6 d VIS | 10:30D | [240–295, 290–405, 400–605, 590–790 (1024 channels)], [292–402, 402–597, 597–790 nm (pol, 1 channel)] @ 40 × 40 km2 @ larger swath, or 40 × 320 km2 @ smaller swath | -- | -- |
CHRIS/PROBA-1 | 2001–2022, 2001–2024 | polar LEO Sun synchronous | 615 | Mode 1–4 13 km, Mode 5 6.5 km | 7 d | 07:30D | 400–1030 nm, 150 channels, selectable Mode 1 up to 63 channels over 5 angles (−55, −36, 0, 36, 55) @36 m GSD. Mode 2–4, 18 bands @ 18 m GSD, Mode 5, 37 bands @ 18 m GSD. | -- | Single frequency Ku band 13.575 GHz and bandwidth 350 GHZ. @15 km GSD in SAR model, along track resolution is 250 m. |
Satellite /Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV, VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD, m | SWIR, 1500 2500 nm, GSD m | Thermal IR 5.5–15 μm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MERIS (Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) ENVISAT | 2002– 2012 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 774 | 1150 | 1–3 d | 10:00D | 412.5, 442.5, 490, 510, 560, 620, 685, 681.25, 708.75, 753.75, 760.625, 778.75, 865, 885, 900 nm @300 m basic GSD, 1200 m reduced resolution | -- | -- |
SCanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for Atmosphic CartograpHY (SCIAMACHY)/ENVISAT | 2002– 2012 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 774 | limb scanning, 500 km horizontal, 3 km vertical; Nadir scanning 960 | 3 d | 10:00D | [214–334, 300–412, 383–628, 595–812, 773–1063, 971–1773 nm] with 1024 channels each. [310–2380 nm] with 7 bands | 1934–2044, 2259–2386 nm, with 1024 bands each | -- |
JAXA Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT aka IBUKI) | 2009– 2024 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 666 | 1150 | 1–3 d | 10:00D | TANSO-CAI 380, 674, 870 nm @ 0.5 km; TANSO-FTS, 775–757 nm @ 10.5 km | TANSO-CAI 1600 nm 15 1.5 km; Tanso-FTS: 1720–1560 nm @ 10.5 km | TANSO—FTS, 14.28–5.55 μm, @ 10.5 km |
JAXA GOSAT-2 (IBUKI-2) | 2018– 2024 nadir, limb, and solar/lunar occultation | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 613 | 790 | 3 d | 06:00D | TANSO/CAI-2, 343 nm Fore, 380 nm Aft, 443 nm Fore, 550 nm Aft, 674 nm Fore & Aft, 869 nm Fore & Aft, 0.5 km GSD; TANSO/FTS/2 772–753 nm @10.5 km | TANSO/CAI-2 1630 nm Fore & Aft @ 1.5 km; TANSO-FTS/2 1560–1690 nm, 1920–2380 nm @ 10.5 km | TANSO-FTS/2 5.6–8.4 μm and 8.4–14.3 μm @ 10.5 km |
Landsat-7 ETM+ | 1999–2022 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705 | 185 | 16 d | 10:00 | 500–900 nm PAN @15 m GSD; 480, 560, 660, 830 nm @ 30 m GSD | 1650, 2200 nm, 30 m GSD | 11.45 μm @ 60 m GSD |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude/ Swath km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV, VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD m | SWIR, 1500–2500 nm, GSD m | Mid IR 3.0–6.0 μm, Thermal IR, 11–15 μm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NMP Hyperion/EO-1 | 2001– 2017 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 691/7.7 | yearly | 9:45D | 357–1000, 900–1600 nm @10 nm/band = 120 bands @ 30 m GSD | 1600–2576 nm @ 10 nm/band = 95 bands @30 m GSD | -- |
NMP ALI/EO-1 | 2001– 2007 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 691/37 | 80 d | 09:45D | 480–690 PAN @ 10 m GSD, 443, 482, 565, 660, 790, 867, 1250 nm @ 30 m GSD | 1650, 2215 nm @ 30 m GSD | -- |
MODIS/Terra & Aqua | 2000– 2027 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/2230 | 1, 2 d | 10:30D 10:30A | 645, 858 nm @ 250 m GSD, 469, 555, 1240 nm @ 500 m GSD, 412, 443, 488, 531, 551, 667, 678, 748, 870, 905, 936, 940, 1375 nm @ 1 km GSD | -- | 3.750, 3.959, 4.050, 4.515, 6.715 μm @ 1 km GSD; 11.030, 12.020, 13.335, 13.635, 13.935, 14.235 μm @ 1l, GSD |
CERES/Terra & Aqua | 2000– 2022 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/60 | 16 d | 10:30D | 560, 660, 810 nm @ 15 m GSD, | 2165, 2205, 22,690, 2339, 2395 nm @ 30 m GSD | 8.30, 8.65, 9.10, 10, 60, 11.30 μm @ 90 m GSD |
Satellite /Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude/ Swath km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV, VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD m | SWIR 1500–2500 nm, GSD m | Mid IR 3.0–6.0 μm, Thermal IR, 8–12 μm |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ASTER/Terra | 2000–2022 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/60 | 16 d | 10:30D | 3 bands, 560, 660, 810 nm @ 15 m GSD, | 4 bands, 2165, 2205, 2339, 2395 nm @ 30 m GSD | 5 bands, 8.30, 8.65, 9.10, 10,60, 11.30 μm @ 90 m GSD |
MISR/Terra | 2000–2027 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/380 | 9 d, daylight | 10:30D | 4 bands, 446.4, 557.5, 671.7, 866.4 nm, @ 9 view angles ±26.1°, ±45.6°, ±60.0°, ±70.5° nadir @ 250 m GSD off-nadir @ 275 m GSD | -- | -- |
AIRS/Aqua | 2002–2026 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/1650 | daily | 10:30A | 4 bands, 425, 630, 715, 815 nm @ 2.3 km GSD | -- | 3 bands, 4.175, 7.21, 12.1 μm @13.5 km GSD |
TES-Nadir, TES- limb on Aura | 2004–2025 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705/885 (nadir), effective resolution 300 (limb) | nadir 16 d, limb 3 d | 13:40A | -- | -- | 4 bands of 43,750 channels nadir, 4 bands 162, 162 channels limb 11.11–15.38, 8.70–12.20, 5.13–9.09, 3.28–5.26 μm @ 0.53 × 0.53 km nadir, @ 2.3 km limb, lowest altitude |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | Radar and Microwave, Type(s), Frequency(s), GSD, m |
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Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) NASA/DLR | 2002–2017 | 89° drifting orbit | 485 | -- | -- | varies | High Accuracy Inter-Satellite Ranging System, HAIRS, K-band 24 GHz ~1 cm and Ka-band 32 GHz ~9 mm. SuperSTAR Accelerometers. Blackjack GPS system. |
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) NASA/DLR | 2018– 2026 | 89° drifting orbit | 490 | -- | gridded geolocated monthly, and time averaged | varies | High Accuracy Inter-satellite Ranging System, HAIRS, K-band 24 GHz ~1 cm and Ka-band 32 GHz ~9 mm. SuperSTAR Accelerometers. Tri GPS (GPS, Galileo, and GLONASS) |
Aquarius/SAC-D, Joint NASA/Argentina, ocean salinity | 2011– 2015 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 657 | 390 | 7d | 18:00 on ascending track | 3 L-band radiometers and 1 L-band scatterometer, operating at 1.412 and 1.2 GHz, respectively, @ 150 km |
NASA Soil Moisture Active/Passive (SMAP) | 2015– 2026 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 685 | 1000 | 8 d repeating ground track | 06:00D | 1.41 GHz, L-band. microwave radiometer @ 40 km GSD, co-aligned with SAR 1.26 GHZ full Pol HH, VV, HV, VH, @ 30 km unprocessed, 3 m km processed; 6 m antenna |
Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) CNES and NASA | 2022– 2026 | 78° Drifting orbit | 891 | 120 | 90% globe w/2x sampling every 21 d | varies | KaRIN is Ka (35.5 GHz) radar altimeter, w/2 antennas @ 50 m horizontal GSD on land, @1km on ocean. Microwave altimeter provides water vapor correction in 3 frequencies at 18.7, 23.8, 34.6 GHz. |
Global Precipitation Measurement Constellation, NASA and JAXA. Core Observatory | 2014– 2030 | 62° Drifting orbit | 398 km; raised to 442 km on 7–8 November 2023 | 245 [email protected] GHz and 125 km @35.5 GHz | Near global 5 days/latitudes > ±65° not covered; FMI near global 2 days, latitudes > ±70° not covered | varies | Dual frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) Ku band 13.6 GHz and Ka band 35.55 GHz; GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) 13 bands 10.65, 18.7, 23.8, 36.5, 89, 166.5, 183.31 ± 7, 183.31 ± 3 GHz with vertical polarization; 5 bands 10.65, 18.7, 36.5, 89.0, 166.5 GHz with horizontal polarization. |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV 270–400 nm, VNIR 400–1500 nm, SWIR 1500–2500 nm | Radar and Microwave, Type(s), Frequency(s), GSD, m |
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NASA GLAS/ ICESat (LiDAR) | 2003–2010 | 94° drifting | 600 | -- | 91 d | varies | 2 bands 532, 1064 nm Lidar @ 66 m GSD samples at 170 m intervals and 10 cm vertical, surface to cloud top at 200 m. | -- |
NASA ATLAS/ ICESAT-2 (LIDAR) | 2018–2026 | 94° drifting | 481–495 | -- | 183d | varies | 1 band, 1064 nm lidar @ 66 m GSD horizontal samples at 170 m intervals and 10 cm vertical surface to 200 m cloud top | -- |
Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) | 2014–2026 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 705 | x-track 10 km, 3 pointing modes | Global, 1 month | 13:30A | -- | 3 bands with 1024 channels, 1594–1619 nm with 0.08 nm resolution, 2024–2082 nm with 0.10 nm resolution @1.29 km X-track × 2.25 km along-track |
Sentinel 5 Precursor (5P); Tropospheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) (Trails VIIRS on Suomi NPP by 3.5 min.) | 2017–2025; free flyer | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 824 | 2600 | <1 d | 13:30A | TROPOMI 5 Hyperspectral regions UV1270–300 nm, UV2 300–400 nm with 0.39 nm resolution, VIS 400–500 nm with 0.58 nm resolution, NIR 700–775 nm with 1.03 nm resolution, SWIR3 2305–2385 nm with 2.01 nm resolution, 7 km GSD, relaxed to 50 km for wavelengths <300 nm | -- |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV, VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD m | Radar and Microwave, Band Type(s), Frequency(s), GSD, m |
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ESA Earth Explorer #1 Gravity Field and Stead-State Ocean Circulation (GOCE) | 2009–2023 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 230 | -- | -- | 6:00A | -- | 3-AXIS Electrostatic Gravity Gradiometer (EGG) with 6 accelerometers, Laser Retro-Reflector (LRR), Lagrange receiver Satellite-to Satellite Tracking System (SSTI), capable of tracking 12 GPS satellites for accurate positioning. |
ESA Earth Explorer # 5 Aeolius with ALADIN (Atmsopheric Laser Doppler Instrument) | 2018–2023 | Polar, LEO Sun synchronous | 320 | 87 | weekly | 06:00D | Aladin, 325 nm laser transmitter looking 35° off nadir. Pulsed laser source 50 Hz averaging over 87 km along track. High spectral resolution lidar (HSRL) @15 m GSD. 2 detectors discriminate Mei and Rayleigh winds | -- |
ESA Earth Explorer # 2, Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) | 2009, 2025 | polar, LEO, sun-synchronous | 758 | 1050 | global soil moisture 3d; salinity monthly | 06:00D | -- | Microwave Imaging Radiometers with Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS), passive 2-D interferometric polarimetric radiometer; L-band SAR, w/several polarimetric modes; 1.413 GHz; 50 km GSD; can be degraded for salinity to 15 km grid |
ESA Earth Explorer # 3, SIRAL/ Cryosat-2 | 2010–2028 | LEO drifting, 92° | 717 | -- | 369d, binned latitudes, monthly | varies | -- | SIRAL has a 13.575 GHZ frequency, 350 MHz bandwidth, and a pulse repetition frequency dependent on the operating mode SIRAL has along track resolution @15 km GSD, in SAR mode alongtrack resolution is250 m @ 0.45 km GSD |
ESA Earth Explorer #4 SWARM constellation (A, B, C), Canada’s CASSIOPE integrated as SWARM E | A,B,C 2013–2025, 2018–2021 | A,C 67.75°, B 87.75°, SWARM E 80.97° | A,C @ 462, B 511, SWARM E 670 | SWARM A, B. C each had 7 identical instrument packages, Accelerometer (ACC), Absolute Scalar Magnetometer (ASM), Electric Field Instrument EFI), GPS Receiver (GPS), Laser Retro-Reflector (LRR),Star Tracker Set (STR), and Vector Field Magnetometer (VFM). CASSIOPE had 8 instruments: Imaging and Rapid-screening Ion Mass Spectrometer (IRS) Suprathermal Electron Imager (SEI), Fast Auroral Imager (DAI), Magnetic Field Instrument (MFI) Radio Receiver Instrument (RRI), GPS Attitude and POsitioning Experiment (GAP), Coherent Electromagnetic radiation (CER) |
Satellite /Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV/VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD m | SWIR, GSD, m | MidWave IR 3.0–6.0 μm; Thermal IR 6.0–14.0 μm, GSD m |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landsat 8, 9 | 2013– 2024, 2021– 2031 | polar, LEO, sun-synchronous | 705 | 185 | 16 (8 d together) | 10:11D | OLI, 1 PAN 500–680 nm @ 15 m; 5 bands (444, 480, 560, 655, 865 nm) @30 m GSD | OLI 2 SWIR bands 1610, 2200 nm @ 30 m GSD | TIRS 2 bands at 10.895, 12.519 μm @ 100 m GSD |
Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), on NASA’s Suomi NPP | 2012– 2028 Extended | polar, LEO, sun-synchronous | 833 | 3000 | 1, 8, 16 d | 13:25A | VIIRS I-Bands: 1 day/night band 500–900 nm @ 375 m GSD; 2 bands at 640, 865 nm @ 375 m GSD; 9 bands, 412, 445, 488, 555, 672, 746, 865, 1240, 1378 nm @ 750 m GSD) | VIIRS, I-band, 1 at 1.61 μm @ 375 m; M-bands, 2 at 1.61, 2.250 μm @ 750 m | VIIRS I-bands, 2 at 3.74, 11.45 μm @ 375 m GSD, M-bands 5 at 3.70, 4.05, 8.55, 10.763, 12.013 μm @ 750 m GSD |
VIIRS on NOAA 20, 21 (previusly JPSS-1 & JPSS-2) | 2017– 2027, 2023– 2030 | polar, LEO, sun-synchronous | 834 | 3000 | 1, 8, 16 d | 13:25A | VIIRS I-Bands, 1 day/night band 500–900 nm @ 375 m GSD; 2 bands at 640, 865 nm @ 375 m GSD); M-bands, 9 at 412. 445, 488, 555, 672, 746, 965, 1240, 1378 nm @ 750 m GSD | VIIRS, I-band, 1 at 1.61 μm @ 375 m; M-bands, 2 at 1.61, 2.250 μm @ 750 m | VIIRS I-bands, 3 at 3.74, 11.45 μm @ 375 m GSD; M-bands, 5 at 3.70, 4.05, 8.55, 10.763, 12.013 μm @ 750 m GSD |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | VNIR, 400–1500 nm; GSD m; SWIR 1500–2500 nm, GSD m | MidIR 3.0–6.0 μm, GSD km, TIR 6-15.0 μm, GSD, km | Radar & Microwave, bands or Frequencies, GSD, km |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sentinel 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D Interferometric SAR | 1A 2014–2024, 1B 2016 2022 1C 2024–2031, 1D 2025–2032 | polar, LEO, sun synch-ronous | 693 | depends on mode 80, 250, 400 km | extra wide swath 8 d, 12 d each, 180° apart | 06:00D | -- | -- | 1 SAR C band at 5.405 GHz side looking 15°–45° off nadir, Dual polarization, SAR imager 4–80 m GSD mode dependent, interferometric SAR (nSAR), 20 km GSD. |
Sentinel 2A and 2B and Sentinel 2C and 2D | 2A 2015–2024, 2B 2017–2024, 2C 2024–2031, 2D 2028–2033 | polar, LEO, sun synch-ronous | 786 | 290 | 10 d each, together 5 d | 10:30D | Multi-spectral Instrument (MSI) 4 bands at 490, 560, 665, 842 nm @ 10 m; 4 bands at 705, 740, 783, 865 nm @ 20 m; 2 bands at 1610, 2190 nm @ 20 m GSD. Includes 3 calibration bands 443, 945, 1375, nm bands @ 60 m GSD | -- | -- |
Sentenel 3A and 3B, Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI) and Sea and Land Surface Temperature Radiometer (SLSTR) and Sentinel-3 radar altimeter. | 3A 2016–2026, 3B 2018– 2028 | polar, LEO, sun synch-ronous | 814.5 | OLCI = 1270, off nadir view avoids sunglint; SLSTR nadir swath 1400 km all viewing; diurnal viewing @740 km | OLCI global 1 mo. for 30 km ave. spacing or 10d for 100 km ave. spacing. SLSTR global coverage monthly, or 10 d w/100 km ave. spacing. | 10:00D | OLCI, push-broom side-to-side telescopes. 2 bands 761.25, 767.5 nm at 2.5 nm, 1 band 764.275 nm at 3.75 nm; 9 bands 412.5, 442.5, 490, 510, 620, 665, 708.25, 885, 900 nm at 10 nm, @ 300 m; 2 bands 940, 1020 nm at 40 nm @300 m GSD SLSTR, 6 bands 555, 659, 865, 1375, 1610, 2250 nm @ 500 m GSD | SLSTR, 3 bands 3.74, 10.85, 12.02 μm @ 1 km | SRAL SAR altimeter dual frequency C-band ~5 cm and 5.4 GHz and a Ku-band ~2 cm at 13.58 GHz 20 km GSD. MicroWave Radiometer 2 channels K band ~0.8 cm and 23.8 GHZ; Ka band ~0.27 cm and 36.5 GHz; nadir viewing 20 km GSD. Includes a Precise Orbit Determination package. |
Sentinel 6A and 6B, Michael Freilich, Jason Continuity of Service (Jason-CS A and Jason-CS B) | 6A 2020–2027, 6B 2025–2032, 6C 2030–2036 | 66° drifting orbit | 1336 | 290 | 10d | -- | -- | -- | POSEIDON-4, 2-band SAR altimeter, Ku ~2 cm and 13.575 GHz and C ~5 cm and 5.31 GHz; w/12 m antenna. A 3-band Multi-frequency 18.7, 23.8 and 34 GHz microwave radiometer, approximately Ku-, K, Ka bands. Advanced Microwave Radiometer for Climate, (AMR-C), with High-Resolution Microwave Radiometer (HRMR) mm-wave channels at 90, 130, 160 GHz (λ = ~31, 6.1, 3.7 μm) |
Satellite Characteristics | Landsat 8/OLI-TRS | Sentinel 2A/MSI | Sentinel-2B/MSI | |
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11 February 2013 | 23 June 2015 | 7 March 2017 | ||
Equatorial Crossing Time, Descending orbit | 10:00 | 10:30 | 10:30 | |
Spatial Resolution, GSD | 30 m OLI/100 m TIRS | 10 m/20 m/60 m (for different bands) | ||
Swath/Field of View | 180 km/15° | 290 km/20.6° | ||
Spectral bands, Central Wavelength | Ultra blue | 443 nm | 443 nm (60 m) | |
Visible | 482, 561, 655 nm | 490 (10 m), 560 (10 m), 665 (20 m) | ||
Red edge | -- | 705 (20 m), 740 (20 m), 783 nm (20 m) | ||
NIR | 865 nm | 842 (10 m), 865 nm (20 m) | ||
SWIR | 1373 nm | 1375 nm (60 m) | ||
Water Vapor | -- | 945 nm (60 m) | ||
Thermal | 10.9, 12.0 μm | -- |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV/VNIR, 400–1500 nm, GSD, m | SWIR, 1500-2500 nm, GSD, m |
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Italian Space Agency (ASI) PRecursore IperSpettraie della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA) | 2019–2025 | polar, LEO, sun- synchro- nous | 615 | 30 | 29d | 10:30D | 66 bands 400–1010 nm at 10 nm bandwidth @ 30 m GSD | 171 bands 920–2505 nm at 10 nm bandwidth @ 30 m GSD |
German Space Agency (DLR) Environmental Monitoring and Analysis Program (EnMAP) | 2022–2026 | polar, LEO, sun- synchro- nous | 653 | 30 | 27d | 11:00D | 92 bands 420–1000 nm; 6.5 nm ave. bandwidth @30 m GSD | 48 bands SWIR 1: 900–1380 nm; 28 bands SWIR 2: 1480–1760 nm; 50 bands SWIR3: 1950–2450 nm, 10 nm ave. band-width @30 m GSD |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | VSWIR 400–2500 nm at 10 nm Resolution @ GSD | TIR 6–15.0 μm, GSD, m |
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DLR Earth Sensing Imaging Spectrometer (DESIS) | 2017– 2024 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 30 | 3 d spatial repeat, but 63 d for time of day repeat (TOD) | 240 VNIR (450–915 nm) with ~1.9 nm bandwidths, @ 30 m GSD | -- |
HISUI Hyperspectral imager and Multispectral imager; Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and Japanese Space Agency (JAXA). | 2019– 2024 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 20 | 3 d spatial repeat, but 63d for TOD | 185 bands 400–250 nm, with 10.0–12.5 nm spectral resolution, IFOV is 20 m × 30 m | -- |
Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (EMIT). NASA Earth Ventures Instrument (EVI-4) | 2022– 2026 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 75 | 3 d spatial repeat, but 63d for TOD | 286 bands 380–2500 nm at 7.4 nm sampling, @60 m GSD | -- |
NASA Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO3), ESSP-6 mission | 2019– 2029 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 4.5 × 4.5; Pointing 40 km both sides ISS ground track | 3 d spatial repeat, but 63d for TOD | -- | -- |
NASA ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station (ECOSTRESS) EVI-2 | 2018– 2026 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 384 | 4d repeat w/63d exact repeat for time of day | -- | 5 bands at 8.285 *, 8.785, 9.060 *, 10.552, 12.001 μm at 69 m × 38 m GSD * bands unavailable after 5 May 2019 |
NASA/U. Maryland, Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI), EVI-2 | 2018– 2031, removed 3/2023–7/2024, returns until January 2030 | 51.6° drifting orbit | 407 | 7 | 3 d spatial repeat, but 63 d for TOD | 3 Nd:YAG lasers emitting at 1064 nm light, split into 7 beams, dithered to produce 14 ground track spot beams, 25 m footprints, spaced 500 m x-track and 60 m along track. Pointing strategy for targets. | -- |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | Panchromatic Resolution, GSD m | VNIR, Resolution, 400–1500 nm, GSD m | Radar, Microwave, m GSD |
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Satellite pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT), 6,7 | 2012, 2014, 10 year life | Polar LEO sun synchro-nous | 679 | 60 | 26 d each, with pair 13 d | 10:00D | 1 BAND 450–745 nm @1.5 m GSD | 4 bands 485, 560, 660, 825 nm @ 2.0 m GSD | -- |
Pléiades 1A and 1B (CNES) | 2011–2024, 2012–2024 | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 694 | 20, at NADIR | 26d each, with pair 13 d | 10:00D | 1 band at 480–930 nm @ 50 cm GSD | 4 bands 490, 550, 660, 850 nm @ 2.0 m GSD | -- |
Pléiades NEO, 4 satellites at 90° (CNES) | 2020 (pair 2), 2022 (pair 2) | PolarLEO sun synchronous | 620 | 14, at NADIR | 4 w/6.5 day repeat | 10:30D | 1 band at 450–800 nm @ 30 cm GSD | 6 bands at 425, 485, 560, 655, 725, 825 nm @ 1.2 m GSD | -- |
TanDEM-X (DLR, data provided by Astrium/Infoterra) | 2010–2026 | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 505 | 10–100, mode dependent | 06:00D | -- | -- | x-band SAR (9.65 GHz) @ 1–16 m GSD mode dependent Multipolarization | |
PlanetScope Constellation of 200+ Dove Cubesats, 3-band sensors PS-2 and 4-band PS2.SD. | 2014- | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 475–525 | 24 × 8 km or 24 × 16 km scene based | daily, at Nadir, global | 9:30–11:30D | -- | Originally 3-band RGB satellites, now 4 band B, G, R, NIR, @ 3.0–4.1 m GSD | -- |
PlanetScope Constellation of ~195 SuperDove satellites. called SPB.SD imagers | 2018- | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 504 | 32.5 × 19.6 km scene based | ~daily at Nadir, global | 9:30–11:30D | -- | 8 bands, B (443, 490), G (531, 565), Y 610, R 665, Red- edge 705, NIR 865 @ 3.7 m GSD | -- |
PlanetScope Constellation of 21 SkySats | 2014–2025 | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 450 | Sats 1,2 8 km, Sats 3 15 are 5.8 km, Sats 16 21 are 20.5 km × 5.9, all at Nadir | 4–5 day individual revisit; Constellation ave. 6–7 images/day global | 10:30D (Sats 1–6, 14–16) 13:00A (Sats 1, 2, 8–13) | 1 pan 400–900 nm @ 0.5 m GSD | 4 VNIR bands at 482.5, 555, 650, 820 @ 2.0 m GSD | -- |
PlanetScope RapidEye-4; a 5-satellite constellation, originally launched in 2008 | 2008- Planet acquired in 2015, retired 2020 | Polar LEO sun synchronous | 630 | 77 | daily with pointing; 5.5 d at nadir over mid latitudes | 11:00 + 1 h D | -- | Multispectral Imager (MSI) 5 VNIR bands at 465, 555, 660, 710, 820, at 6.5 m GSD st Nadir, resampled to 5 m on ortho products | 1 pan 400–900 nm @ 0.5 m GSD |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude km | Swath, km | Acquisition Periods | VNIR, SWIR 400– 1500 nm, GSD, m | Mid IR 3.0–6.0 μm TIR, 6–15.0 μm, GSD, km |
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JAXA Himawari 8 and 9 3rd Generation, contains Advanced Himawari imager (HMI) and a data collection service. | 2014– 2030, 2016– 2030 | Japan, western Pacific, 140.7° | 35,786 | Full disk and regional | Multi modes, 2.5 min to 10 min full disk | Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) 1 VIS Red at 645 nm @0.5 km, 3 VNIR 455, 510, 860 nm @ 1 km GSD, 2 SWIR 1610, 2260 nm @ 2 km GSD | 10 AHI 3.85, 6.25, 6.95, 7.35, 8.60, 9.63, 10.45, 11.20, 12.35, 13.30 μm @ 2 km GSD. Data transfer uses Ka band (18.1–18.4 GHz) |
NOAA GOES 16 (GOES- East), 17 (GOES West), 18 (GOES West, replaced GOES 17) Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI), Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) | 2016– 2030, 2017– 2032, 2022– 2033 | GOES, 16 over Eastern US (75.2° W), GOES 2017/2018 over western US (137.0° W) | 35,786 | Full disk and regional | multi-modes from 30 s to 15 min | ABI VIS 1 band 640 nm @ 0.5 km, 3 VNIR bands 470, 865, 1378 nm @ 1k GSD, 2 SWIR bands 1610, 2250 nm @ 2 km GSD. GLM measures flash intensity against threshold background, optical energy over 2 × 2 km grid cell. Units of Average Flash Area in km2 and Total Optical Energy per grid cell per time period (5 min) in femtojoules (fJ, 10−15 J) | ABI 10 bands, 3.90, 6.19, 6.90, 7.3, 8.4, 9.6, 10.3, 11.2, 12.3, 13.3 μm @ 2 km GSD |
EUMETSAT METOP Third Generation, MTG Flexible Combined Imager (FCI) on MTG-I1, MTG-I2. Lightning Imager (LI) on MTG-I1, MTG I2. | MTG-I 1 2022– 2030, MTG- I 2 2026– 2036 | GEO 0° Latitude | 37,786 | Full disc and regional | Multi modes, 2.5 min to 10 min full disk | Flexible Combined Imager (FCI), 2 channels 640, 2200 nm @ 500 m GSD and 6 bands 444, 510, 640, 865, 914, 1380, 1610, 2250 nm @ 1 km GSD. Lightning Imager (LI), measures pulse intensity over a narrow band at 777.4 nm with a 4.5 km GSD | FCI, 2 bands at 3.8, 10.50 @ 1 km GSD in hi res mode. and 8 bands 3.8, 6.30, 7.35, 8.70, 9.66, 10.50, 12.30, 13.3 μm @ 2.0 km GSD |
EUMETSAT METOP Third Generation, MTG-S) Sounder. the Infrared Sounder (IRS) and Sentinel 4 UVN will be flown on the MTG-S1. | MTG-S 1 2025– 2035; MTG-S 2 ~10 years after launch of S 1 | GEO over 0° Latitude | 75,779 | Full disc and regional | Multi modes, 2.5 to 10 min for full disk | -- | IRS Fourier transform Interferometer Sounder w/large detector arrays, 4.44–6.25 μm and 8.26–14.70 μm at 0.604 cm−1 wave number resolution, @ 4 km GSD |
Sentinel 4A, 4B, Ultraviolet, Visible, Near-Infrared Imager (UVN) Flown on the MTG-S1 with the Infrared Sounder (IRS) | A 2025–2032 B launch~ 2034 | GEO, 30–65° N latitude, 30° W–45° E longitude. | 37,786 | 60 min cycle | -- | UVN. 190 bands Ultraviolet 305–400 nm, 200 bands Visible 400–500 nm @ 0.5 nm wavelength resolution; 21 bands NIR 750–775 nm at 1.2 nm wavelength resolution @ 8 × 8 km GSD | -- |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial Crossing Time | UV/VNIR/SWIR, 400–2500 nm, GSD; an TIR 6.0–12.0 μm @GSD in km | Radar and Microwave Bands, Wavelengths, Frequencies |
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PACE Ocean Color Instrument (OCI) and 2 polarimeters (SPEXone and HARP2) | 2024–2027 | polar, LEO, sun-synchron ous | 676 | OCI = 2663 at 20° Tilt to avoid sunglint, SPEXone = 100 km, HARP2 = 1556 km | OCI = 1–2 d; SPEXone = 30 d, Harp2 = 2 d | 12:00D, | OCI 46 bands from 342.5–887 nm at 5 nm resolution, 7 bands NIR-SWIR bands 940, 1038, 1250, 1378,1615, 2130, 2260 nm @ 1 km GSD. SPEXone is a multiangle polarimeter, measures intensity angle and polarization linearity, 385–770 nm in 2–4 nm steps (yielding about 150 bands) at 5 view angles (−57°,−20°, 0°, 20°, 57°) @ 2.5 km2 GSD; also bands in same range as the 7 OCI bands but in 15–45nm steps yielding about 30–88 bands; HARP-2 has 4 bands 441, 549, 669, 873 nm with bandwidths of 15, 12, 16, 43 nm with 10 view angles at 440, 550, 870 nm at 3 angles 0, 45°, 90° at 2.6 km GSD. | -- |
Carbon Mapper Tanager satellites from Planet | first 2 Tanager satellites, 2024; Phase 2 expansion 2025; 5 yrs | Polar, LEO Sun Sychro-nous | 405 | 18 km, measured in 1200 km wide-strips | TBD | TBD | Pushbroom VSWIR imaging spectrometer 300–2500 nm with 5 nm spectral sampling @30 m GSD | -- |
MethaneSat Environmental Defense Fund and New Zealand Space Agency | launched 3/4/2024, 5 yrs | 51.6° Drifting Orbit | 590 | 200 | 3–4 days global | TBD | VSWIR 2 HgCdTe detectors, #1 with 2 bands having 28 channels between 1249–1305 nm and 42 channels between 1598–1683nm w/0.2 nm resolution and 0.6nm spectral sampling @ 100 × 400 m GSD. SNR 190. #2 VSWIR HgCdTe detectors: 400 channels from 1583–1683 nm with 0.25 nm resolution and 0.08 nm sampling. @100 × 400 m GSD and SNR 190. | -- |
Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource Assessment (TRISHNA) French CNES/ Indian ISRO Space Agencies. | 2026–2031 | polar, LEO, sun-synchro-nous | 761 | 932 | 3 d | 12:30D | 4 bands (485, 555, 670, 860, 1380, 1650 nm) @ 57 m GSD and 4 bands TIR 4 bands, (8.6, 9.1, 10.4, 11.6 µm) @ 57 m GSD | -- |
NASA-Indian Space Research Oeganization (NASA ISRO) joint NISAR Mission | 2024–2026 | polar, LEO, sun-synchro-nous | 747 | 242 | 12 A and D (6 day for both) | 06:00D 18:00A | -- | Dual frequency SAR multi-polarimetric modes, GSD mode dependent 2–7 m. Side looking 33–47°. S-band 3.162–3.237 GHz (~9 cm) and 3–24 m GSD; and L band 1.215–1.3 GHz (24 cm) and 3–48 m GSD. |
Satellite /Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude | Swath km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial crossing Time | VNIR/SWIR, 400 2500 nm, GSD, km | MIDIR 3.0–6.0 μm, TIR 6.0–14.0 μm, @ km GSD | Radar and Microwave Bands, Wavelengths, Frequencies, GSD km |
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METOP-SG-Polar Weather Satellite 1A, 2A | 2025–2033, 2032–2040 | Polar, LEO, Sun-synchro-nous | 835 | METImage 2670 km, 3MI 2200 km, IASI-NG 2000 km, S-5 2715 km, MWS 2300 km | 3MI D in sunlight; MET- Image, D, VSWIR, 2x D TIR. MWS near 2 x D | 09:30D | 3MI: 9 channels w/polarization 410, 443, 490, 555, 670, 865, 1370, 1650, 2130 nm, 3 channels no pol: 763, 765, 910 nm @ 4 km GSD. METImage 11 VNIR/SWIR Channels 443, 555, 668, 751.5, 762.7, 865, 914, 1240, 1375, 1630, 2250 nm @0.5 km | METImage 9 bands: 3.74, 3.959, 4.05, 6.725, 7.325, 8.54, 10.69, 12.02, 13.345 μm @ 0.5 km; IASI-NG sounder w/16,921 channels 4.62–15.50 μm @4 × 412 km spaced GSD, within 100 × 100 km2 grid. | MWS 24 channels, single pol (V or H), at frequencies: 54.4, 54.94, 55.5, 57.290344 ± 0.3222 + 0.022, 57.290344 ± 0.3222 ± 0.010, 57.290344 ± 0.3222 ± 0.0045, 89, 164–167, 183.311 ± 7.0, 183.311 ± 4.5, 183.311 ± 3.0, 183.311 ± 1.8, 183.311 + 1.0, 229.0 GHz@ GSD 17 GSD channels 89–229 GHZ, 20 km for channels 50–59 GHZ, 40 km for channels 23.8–31.4 GHz. |
METOP-SG-Polar Weather Satellite 1B, 2B | 2026–2034, 2033–2041 | Polar, LEO, Sun- synchro-nous | 835 | ICI, MWI = 1700 km, SCA 2 swaths @ 660 km separated by 525 km gap. 3 looks at 45, 90, 135°. MWI = 1700 km swath | ICI, MWI D, SCA ~1.5 D | 09:30D | -- | -- | ICI 11 frequency channels 183.31 ± 7.0, 183.31 ± 3.4, 183.31 ± 2.0, 243.2 ± 2.5, +325.15 + 9.5, 325.15 ± 3.5, 325.15 + 1.5, 448 ± 7.2, 448 ± 3.0, 448 ± 1.4, 664 ± 4.2 GHz.; SCA C-band, 5.355 GHZ side looking, 25 km sampling at 12.5 km intervals, hi res mode 15–20 km w/6.25 km sampling intervals all @ 15 km GSD; MWI 18 frequencies 26 channels, 18.7, 23.8, 31.4, 50.3, 52.7, 53.24, 53.75, 89, 118.7503 ± 3.2, 118.7503 ± 2.1, 118.7503 ± 1.4, 118.7503 ± 1.2, 165.5 ± 0.725, 183.31 ± 7.0, 183.31 ± 6.1, 183.31 ± 4.9, 183.31 ± 3.4, 183.31 ± 2.0 GHz, GSD wavelength dependent |
Sentinel-5 flown on METOP-SG-1A, SG-2A | 2025–2033, 2932–2040 | Polar, LEO, Sun-synch-ronous | 835 | 2715 | daily | 09:30D | UVNS: 7 channels, 30 bands from 270–300 nm @ 1 nm sampling, 140 bands from 300–370 nm @0.5 nm sampling, 260 bands from 370–500 nm @0.5 nm sampling, 6 bands from 685–710 nm @ 0.4 nm sampling, 7 bands from 745–773 nm @ 0.4 nm sampling, 340 bands from 1590–1675 nm @ 0.25 nm sampling, 320 bands from 2305–2385 nm @ 0.25 nm sampling. @ 7 km GSD, degraded to 28 km for 270–300 nm. | -- | -- |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial crossing Time | UV/VNIR, 400–1500 nm, GSD m | TIR GSD μm | Radar and Micro- Wave, Bands Wavelengths, Frequencies |
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ESA Earth Explorer Missions: #6 Earth Cloud, Aerosol, and Radiation Mission (EarthCARE) | 2024– 2027, 3.5 year life | polar, LEO, sun-synch-ronous | 394 | MSI = 150 BBR = 3 view angle, 10 km each | 25 d | 14:00D | Multi-Spectral Imager (MSI) 4 bands 670, 865 nm, 1.67, 2.21 μm @ 500 m; ATLID Measures 1 band at 354.8 nm | MSI TIR 8.8, 10.8, 12.0 μm @ 500 m | Broad-Band Radiometer (BBR) 2 channels, 0.25–4.0,0.25–50 μm at 3 view angles (+ 50° Fore, AFT and nadir) with 10 km footprint @ 1 km GSD; CPR 1 band at 94.05 GHz at@ 500 m. |
BIOMASS | 2025, 5- year life | polar, LEO, sun-synch-ronous | 660 | 50–30 km | 25 d | 06:00D | -- | -- | SAR P-Band ~70 cm wavelength and 435 MHz; SAR, Quad polarized Interferometric. 12 M antenna; side looking incidence angle 25° @50–60 m GSD. |
ESA Earth Explorer # 8, Fluorescence Explorer (FLEX) flys in tandem w/Sentinel-3 | 2026, 3.5 year life | polar, LEO, sun-synch-ronous | 800 | 150 | 27 d | 10:00D | FLORIS 3 bands with 2800 channels from 500–780, 110 channels from 686–697, and 10 channels from 759–769 at 0.1 nm, and bands with 750–1500 channels from 500–2000, sampled at 1–2 nm resolution; all @ 300 m | -- | -- |
ESA Earth Explorer #10, Harmony, 1A and 1B, flys in formation with Sentinel-1, 350 km front and behind. Definition stage. | 2029– 2034 | 98.2° polar sun Synchro-nous | 693 | TBD | 27 d | 06:00D | -- | Muiltiview VIS/TIR imager TBD | receive only, C-band SAR from Sentinel 1. |
Satellite /Instrument | Original NASEM Recommendation | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Alttude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency, Days | Equatorial crossing Time | VNIR, SWIR, 400–1500 nm, 1500–2500 nm, GSD m | TIR 3.0–13.0 μm, GSD m |
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NASA Surface Biology and Geology (SBGTIR) | Hyperspectral imagery in the visible and shortwave infrared and Multiband or Hyperspectral imagery in the Thermal IR | 2029, 3 year life | polar, LEO, sun synchro- nous | 665 | VNIR camera 630. TIR TBD up to 935 | 2–3 d | 1:30D | Visible Near-Infrared VNIR 2-band camera from ASI (665, 835), @ 30 m; 1 SWIR band at 1.65 μm @ 60 m | TIR 8 bands TBD, between 3.0–12 μm, at <60 m GSD |
NASA Surface Biology and Geology (SBG- VSWIR) | delayed, 2029– 2032 | polar, LEO, sun synchro- nous | 623 | 185 | 16 d | 11:00D | VNIR 52 bands 380–900, 10 nm sampling @ 30 m GSD, SWIR 1605 bands from 900–2500 nm @ 30 m GSD | -- | |
Mass Change and Geosciences International Constellation (MAGIC-1, MAGIC-2) NASA & ESA Joint venture | “Either of two ranging techniques (microwave and optical) that are being evaluated as part of mission planning. GRACE-FO uses a two frequency (24 GHz) and Ka-(32 GHz) high accuracy inter-satellite ranging system and Tri-G GPS (GPS, Galielieo, GLONASS) system. | 2029 first pair, second TBD | 70° Drifting orbit | 397 | -- | -- | -- | MicroSTAR, a 3 axis accelerometer to correct non-gravitational acceleration error along 3 ultra sensitive axes. Laser Tracking Instrument (LTI) with 4-corner cube reflectors with lasers at 1064 nm wavelength for tracking the other satellite in pair. | -- |
Surface Deformation and Change | Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar, (InSAR) with ionospheric correction | TBD program still in Pre Phase A | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Atmosphere Observing System (AOS) AOS-Sky | Aerosols: Backscatter lidar and multichannel multiangle/polarization imaging radiometer flown together; Clouds, Convection and Precipitation: Dual-frequency radar, multifrequency passive microwave and sub-mm radiometer | 2031 | 2 satellite polar sun synchronous orbit; 2 in drifting 55° inclined orbits | 450 | AOS-sky MWR 750 km, SKY Multiangle Polarimeter 300 km, FIR Imaging Radiometer 100 km. AOS HAWCSat ALI 200 km limb scanner. SHOW (SAWCSat) 63 km. TICFIRE 640 km w/30 km vertical. | ALI (SAWCSat) 24 d; SHOW (SAWCSat) global 2 d; FIR Imaging Radiometer global 2 d; | AOS-Sky 13:30D | AOS-Sky Lidar range 532 nm and 1064 nm, polarization sensitive; w/30 m vertical resolution, 350 m footprint, SKY Multi-angle Polarimeter (MAP) 9 bands 380–1570 nm: 2 channels UV 350–390 nm, VIS 410–750 nm for aerosol and spectral cloud. 1350–1400 nm for cirrus clouds, 3 channels from 870–1570 nm for bispectral cloud plus Hyperangle 670–870 nm, 900–960 nm for H2Ov in bispectral clouds, at 0.5 km GSD. HAWCSat Aerosol limb Imager (ALI) 10 channels 610–1560 nm limb scanning and 0.25 km vertical resolution. HAWCSat-SHOW limb viewing imager 1362–1368.32 nm range, 0.13 km vertical resolution | AOS sky: high frequency MWR 89–113 GHz, 3-channel 183, 325 GHz, 2- channel 640–700 GHz nadir viewing @ 10 km GSD, FIR Imaging Radiometer (TICFIRE) 6 bands 7.5–50 μm (7.5–9.5, 10–12, 12–14, 27.35–29.75, 22.5–27.5, 30–50 μm), AOS-Sky Radar, nadir viewing Doppler radar Ka band 35 GHz or 94 GHz (W-band) @2 km horizontal and @500 m GSD. |
Atmosphere Observing System (AOS) AOS-Storm | Storm 2029, HAWCsat in 2031 | drifting 55° inclined orbits | 430 | AOS-Storm MWR 700 km, Aerosol Limb imager 200 km, Water Vapor 430 km. Limb imager 63 km. Ku AOS Doppler SAR 255 km. AOS PMM TBD. | AOS STORM MWR global 2 d. PMM MWR global 2 d. PMM Doppler Radar global 5.5 d. | various | AOS-Storm MWR (SAPHR-NG) passive microwave 89–113, 184 (6 channels), 325 (3 channels) GHz @ 3–10 km GSD; AOS-Lidar nadir viewing, 2 band 532, 1064 nm polarizationsensitive lidar @ 350 m footprint, 30 m vertical. AOS PMM TBD | AOS-Storm MWR 89, 183, 325 GHz @ 3–10 km GSD; AOS Doppler Radar (JAXA), Ku (13.6 GHz) wide-swath doppler radar @ 500 m vertical resolution and 5 km | |
GSD. |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial crossing Time | VSWIR 400–2500 nm; TIR 7.5–13 μm GSD m or km |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Copernicus Expansion Mission, Copernicus Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Monitoring (CO2M) | CO2M-A 2026–2033, CO2M-B 2027–2034, CO2M-C, 2029–2036 | Polar sun synchronous | 735 | CO2I/NO2I 250, MAP swath increases with view angle, oversampling keeps pixel resolution ~1 km; CLIM 465 | 11 d | 11:30D | CO2I & NO2I 405–490 nm @ 0.6 nm resolution, 747–773 nm @0.12 nm, 1590–1675 nm @0.30 nm, 1990–2095 nm w/0.35 nm resolution at 0.8 km GSD. MAP 410, 443, 490, 555, 670, 753, 865 nm scanned along track fore, aft, ±60°, 12 x-track detectors, ~1km GSD. CLIM 670, 753 nm @ 174 m GSD, 1370 nm @ 348 m GSD |
Copernicus Sentinel Expansion Mission Copernicus Hyperspectral Imaging Mission for the Environment (CHIME), A, B | A 2029-2034, B 2031–2037 | Polar sun synchronous | 786 | 290 | 25 d, together 12.5 d | 10:45D | ~210 bands 400–2500 nm @ ≤10 nm; 20–30 m GSD band dependent. |
Copernicus Expansion mission Land Surface Temperature Monitoring (LSTM), 1A, 1B | A 2029–2034, B 2031–2038 | Polar sun synchronous | 640 | 600–700 km | 4 d with 1 instrument; 2 d with 2 instruments 1 d with 4 instruments | 12:30A | Primary mission 11 bands, VSWIR 490, 665, 865, 945, 1380, 1610 nm @ 30 m and 8.6, 8.9, 9.2, 10.9, 12.0 μm. Secondary mission 13 bands, TIR 8.2, 9.1, 8.63, 12.63, 7.5, 12.2, 9.0, 9.8, 10.5, 10.95, 12.3, 9.3, 9.53 μm, all @ 30–50 m GSD, band dependent. |
Satellite/ Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial crossing Time | Radar/Microwave Bands, Wavelengths, Frequencies |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Copernicus Expansion Mission Observation System for Europe L-band (ROSE-L) A, B Complements C-Band Sentinel-1 | A: 2030– 2036 B: 2931– 2038 | Polar LEO sun-synchro- nous | 693 | 80–400 km mode dependent | days-weeks, mode dependent | 18:00A 06:00D | L-band SAR (1.2575 GHz) polaremetric and interferometric, side looking 15–45° off Nadir, best resolution is 5 m |
Copernicus Expansion Mission Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer (CIMR); A, B fly in loose formation with METOP-SG-B | A 2029- 2036, B 2031– 2036 | Quasi-polar, circular and sun synchronous at constant incidence angle of 55.5° around the poles | 830 | 1900 | sub-daily “no hole” polar cover; 95% global coverage daily | dawn /dusk circular orbit; 06:00D | Conical scanning w/8 m reflector antenna, 5-band multifrequency microwave radiometer; Dual polarization V and H, in Ka (36.5), Ku (18.7), C (6.875), X (10.65), L (1.4135) GHz. GSD for Ka, Ku 2.5 km, for C, X 7.5 km, and L 30 km pixel resolution. |
Copernicus Expansion Mission Copernicus polaR Ice and Snow Topography ALtimeter-CRISTAL A, B | A 2028– 2034, B 2031– 2036 | drifting 92° polar orbit, will not measure beyond 81.5° N & S | 717 | NA | IRIS 367 d, AMR-CR monthly at 30 km or 10 d at 100 km | various | IRIS Dual frequency SAR altimeter Ku 13.5, Ka 35.75GHz @ 10 km GSD in SAR mode and 80 km in along-track mode. Microwave Radiometer (AMR-CR) for atmospheric corrections and surface type characterization with 3 bands: Ka 35.75, Ku 18.7, 34 GHz @ 25 km GSD. |
Satellite /Instrument | Launch Date | Orbit Type | Altitude, km | Swath, km | Repeat Frequency Days | Equatorial crossing Time | UV/VNIR/SWIR, 380–2500 nm, GSD in m | MID IR 3.0–6.0 µm, TIR 6.0–14.0 μm. Various GSD | Radar and Microwave Bands. Wavelengths, Frequencies, GSD Various |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
JAXA GOSAT-GW | 2024–2031 | Polar, LEO, sun synchronous | 666 | AMSRE3 = 1450, TANSO-3 selectable 911 for wide or 90 for focus | 3d | 13:30 A | TANSO-3, Bands, band1,~450 nm, <0.5 nm (NO2), band 2 ~760 nm <0.05 nm Band 3 ~1600 nm <0.2 nm spectra resolution, for CO2 and CH4 | -- | AMSRE3 11 frequencies 6.9–183 GHz with 21 channels, GSD changes with frequency. |
Canadian WildFireSat, Pre Phaes A planning | around 2030, 5 years | Polar or GEO, or 2 sats. | n/a | n/a | daily or subdaily | 18:00 ± 2 h | Multispectral VNIR, possibly like Landsat-8 or Sentinel 2 | Uncooled IR Bolometer technology. Possible MWIR 3.1–4.8 μm ~400 m GSD, Likely 2 IR micro-bolometers 10–12 μm range, @400 m GSD | -- |
4th Generation Himawari-10 GEO satellite | 2028–2038 | GEO @ 140.7° E | 35,786 | Full disk of Earth, Continental l, Targeted | seconds, minutes to hourly depending on mode | Full disk = 10 min, regional 1000 km × 1000 km every 2.5 min (up to 4 specified). High res areas 1000 km × 500 km every 30 s | GHMI: 470 (<1 km), 550 (<1), 660 (<0.5), 860 (<1), 1380 (<2), 1610 (<1) in km. 2255 (<1 km) in nm | GHMI: 3.85 (<1 km), 5.15 (<km), 6.25 (<2 km 6.95 (<2 km) μm. 7.35, 8.60, 9.625, 10.4, 11.2, 12.40, 13.3μm (all <2 km). GHMS 1689–2250 cm−1, 680–109 cm−1 | -- |
GOES-XO GOES EAST, WEST, and Continental | XO-East 2032–2047, XO- West 2035–2050, XO- Central 2035–2050. | GEOS East/West will have improved imager, hyperspectral IR sounder for ocean color and atmospheric condition. GOES Central will have a sounder and an atmospheric composition instrument. | 35,786 | Full disk of Earth, U.S. CONUS, targeted | full disk and U.S. CONUS better than 15 min and 5 min sampling. | Seconds to hourly, depending on mode | GXI Imager: 18 channels, improve ABI with 1 new band (910 nm) for WV in lower troposphere (daylight), improved day/night band, 3.9 μm @at 1km and 640 nm @ 250 m GSD | -- | improve ABI with 1 new band (5.15 μm) for WV in lower troposphere, near the ground |
Landsat-Next (L-10), w/3 Platforms, LandIS instrument | 2030–2038 | Polar, LEO sun synchronous | 653 | 164 | 16 (6 d w/3 together) | 10:00 | LandIS (bandwidth, nm) 5 bands: 490 (65), 560 (35), 665 (30), 842 (115), 1610 (90) nm, @ 12 m GSD, 10 bands 443 (20), 600 (30), 620 (20), 650 (35), 705 (15), 740 (15), 865 (20), 985 (20), 1035 (20), 1090 (20), 2038 (25), 2198 (20) @ 20 m GSD. Cal bands 412, 945, 1375 nm @ 60 m GSD | -- | LandIS (bandwidths, nm) 5 bands 8300 (250), 8600 (350), 9100 (350), 11,300 (550), 12,000 (550) nm @60 m GSD |
L-8/L-9 | https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-are-band-designations-landsat-satellites | L10 | https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/ | ||||||||||
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Band | λ Region | Purpose | GSD | λ, nm | λ Center | Band Width | Band | λ Region | Purpose | GSD | λ, nm | λ Center | Band Width |
1 | Violet | Improve aerosol retrieval & CDOM inland & coastal water | 60 | 402–422 | 412 | 20 | |||||||
1 | Blue 1 | Coastal/Aerosols | 30 | 430–450 | 440 | 20 | 2 | Blue | Landsat Heritage Coastal/Aaerosols | 20 | 433–453 | 443 | 20 |
2 | Blue2 | water | 30 | 450–510 | 480 | 60 | 3 | Blue | Landsat Heritage | 10 | 457.5–522.5 | 490 | 65 |
3 | Green | Carotenoids | 30 | 530–590 | 560 | 60 | 4 | Green | Landsat Heritage | 10 | 542.5–577.5 | 560 | 35 |
8 | Panchromatic | pan shaprening | 15 | 500–680 | 590 | 180 | |||||||
5 | Yellow | Chlorosis, Plant stress | 20 | 590–610 | 600 | 20 | |||||||
6 | Orange | Phycocyanin detection, Harmful algal blooms (HABs) | 20 | 610–630 | 620 | 20 | |||||||
7 | Red 1 | Phycocyanin, chlorophyll | 20 | 640–660 | 650 | 20 | |||||||
4 | Red | Chlorophyll | 30 | 640–670 | 655 | 30 | 8 | Red 2 | Landsat Heritage Chlorophyll | 10 | 650–680 | 665 | 30 |
9 | Red Edge 1 | LAI, Chlorophyll, plant stress (Sentinel-2 (S-2)) | 20 | 697.5–712.5 | 705 | 15 | |||||||
10 | Red Edge 2 | LAI, Chlorophyll, plant stress (S-2) | 20 | 732.5–747.5 | 740 | 15 | |||||||
11 | NIR Broad | 10 NDVI (S-2) | 10 | 789.5–894.5 | 842 | 115 | |||||||
5 | Near-infrared (NIR) | NIR plateau | 30 | 850–880 | 865 | 30 | 12 | NIR 1 | Landsat Heritage | 20 | 855–875 | 865 | 20 |
13 | Water Vapor | Atmospheric corrections, Land Surface Temperature, Surface Reflectance (S-2) | 60 | 935–955 | 945 | 20 | |||||||
14 | Liquid Water | Liquid water | 20 | 975–995 | 985 | 20 | |||||||
15 | Snow/Ice 1 | Snow grain size for water resources | 20 | 1025–1045 | 1035 | 20 | |||||||
16 | Snow/Ice 2 | Ice absorption, | 20 | 1080–1100 | 1090 | 20 | |||||||
snow grain size | |||||||||||||
9 | NIR | Cirrus | 30 | 1360–1380 | 1370 | 20 | 17 | NIR | Landsat Heritage Cirrus | 60 | 1360–1390 | 1375 | 30 |
6 | Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) 1 | Water absorption | 30 | 1570–1650 | 1610 | 80 | 18 | SWIR 1 | Landsat Heritage | 10 | 1555–1655 | 1610 | 90 |
19 | SWIR 2a | Landsat Heritage subdivided for Cellulose/crop residue | 20 | 2025.5–2050.5 | 2038 | 25 | |||||||
20 | SWIR 2b | Landsat Heritage subdivided for Cellulose/crop residue | 20 | 2088–2128 | 2108 | 40 | |||||||
7 | Shortwave Infrared (SWIR) 2 | separation minerals, cellulose/crop residue | 30 | 2110–2290 | 2200 | 180 | 21 | SWIR 2c | Landsat Heritage subdivided for Cellulose/crop residue | 20 | 2191–2231 | 2211 | 40 |
22 | TIR 1 | Mineral surface composition (ASTER) | 60 | 8175–8425 | 8300 | 250 | |||||||
23 | TIR 2 | Emissivity separation, volcanoes (SO2) (MODIS/ASTER) | 60 | 8475–8725 | 8600 | 250 | |||||||
24 | TIR 3 | Mineral surface composition (ASTER) | 60 | 8925–9275 | 9100 | 350 | |||||||
10 | Thermal infrared TIRS 1 | Radiance, Temperature | 100 | 10600–11,190 | 10,895 | 590 | 25 | TIR 4 | Landsat Heritage Surface temperature, carbonates | 60 | 11,025–11,575 | 11300 | 550 |
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Ustin, S.L.; Middleton, E.M. Current and Near-Term Earth-Observing Environmental Satellites, Their Missions, Characteristics, Instruments, and Applications. Sensors 2024, 24, 3488. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113488
Ustin SL, Middleton EM. Current and Near-Term Earth-Observing Environmental Satellites, Their Missions, Characteristics, Instruments, and Applications. Sensors. 2024; 24(11):3488. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113488
Chicago/Turabian StyleUstin, Susan L., and Elizabeth McPhee Middleton. 2024. "Current and Near-Term Earth-Observing Environmental Satellites, Their Missions, Characteristics, Instruments, and Applications" Sensors 24, no. 11: 3488. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113488