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Sensors, Volume 24, Issue 17 (September-1 2024) – 409 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive type of breast cancer that is difficult to diagnose; therefore, early detection is crucial for treatment and prognosis. Current diagnostic methods lack the ability for early-stage identification, leading to poor survival rates. There is a critical need for the development of tools or methods that can detect TNBC at earlier stages. An electrochemical biosensor capable of identifying specific micro-RNA biomarkers for TNBC offers a promising solution. The biosensor platform developed in this work uses single-stranded DNA molecules to detect specific micro-RNA biomarkers for TNBC. View this paper
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28 pages, 7195 KB  
Article
MEEAFusion: Multi-Scale Edge Enhancement and Joint Attention Mechanism Based Infrared and Visible Image Fusion
by Yingjiang Xie, Zhennan Fei, Da Deng, Lingshuai Meng, Fu Niu and Jinggong Sun
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5860; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175860 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2778
Abstract
Infrared and visible image fusion can integrate rich edge details and salient infrared targets, resulting in high-quality images suitable for advanced tasks. However, most available algorithms struggle to fully extract detailed features and overlook the interaction of complementary features across different modal images [...] Read more.
Infrared and visible image fusion can integrate rich edge details and salient infrared targets, resulting in high-quality images suitable for advanced tasks. However, most available algorithms struggle to fully extract detailed features and overlook the interaction of complementary features across different modal images during the feature fusion process. To address this gap, this study presents a novel fusion method based on multi-scale edge enhancement and a joint attention mechanism (MEEAFusion). Initially, convolution kernels of varying scales were utilized to obtain shallow features with multiple receptive fields unique to the source image. Subsequently, a multi-scale gradient residual block (MGRB) was developed to capture the high-level semantic information and low-level edge texture information of the image, enhancing the representation of fine-grained features. Then, the complementary feature between infrared and visible images was defined, and a cross-transfer attention fusion block (CAFB) was devised with joint spatial attention and channel attention to refine the critical supplemental information. This allowed the network to obtain fused features that were rich in both common and complementary information, thus realizing feature interaction and pre-fusion. Lastly, the features were reconstructed to obtain the fused image. Extensive experiments on three benchmark datasets demonstrated that the MEEAFusion proposed in this research has considerable strengths in terms of rich texture details, significant infrared targets, and distinct edge contours, and it achieves superior fusion performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Fusion and Artificial Intelligence Applications in Remote Sensing)
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18 pages, 7620 KB  
Article
Multi-Sensing Inspection System for Thermally Induced Micro-Instability in Metal-Based Selective Laser Melting
by Xing Peng, Rongjie Liao and Ziyan Zhu
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5859; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175859 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1383
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) excels in engineering intricate shapes, pioneering functional components, and lightweight structures. Nevertheless, components fabricated through AM often manifest elevated residual stresses and a myriad of thermally induced micro-instabilities, including cracking, incomplete fusion, crazing, porosity, spheroidization, and inclusions. In response, this [...] Read more.
Additive manufacturing (AM) excels in engineering intricate shapes, pioneering functional components, and lightweight structures. Nevertheless, components fabricated through AM often manifest elevated residual stresses and a myriad of thermally induced micro-instabilities, including cracking, incomplete fusion, crazing, porosity, spheroidization, and inclusions. In response, this study proposed a sophisticated multi-sensing inspection system specifically tailored for the inspection of thermally induced micro-instabilities at the micro–nano scale. Simulation results substantiate that the modulation transfer function (MTF) values for each field of view in both visible and infrared optical channels surpass the benchmark of 0.3, ensuring imaging fidelity conducive to meticulous examination. Furthermore, the innovative system can discern and accurately capture data pertaining to thermally induced micro-instabilities across visible and infrared spectra, seamlessly integrating this information into a backend image processing system within operational parameters of a 380–450 mm distance and a 20–70 °C temperature range. Notably, the system’s design is harmoniously aligned with the requisites of processing and assembly, heralding a significant advancement in bolstering the inspection effect of thermally induced micro-instabilities for the AM component. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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22 pages, 5266 KB  
Article
Self-Supervised Dam Deformation Anomaly Detection Based on Temporal–Spatial Contrast Learning
by Yu Wang and Guohua Liu
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5858; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175858 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2072
Abstract
The detection of anomalies in dam deformation is paramount for evaluating structural integrity and facilitating early warnings, representing a critical aspect of dam health monitoring (DHM). Conventional data-driven methods for dam anomaly detection depend extensively on historical data; however, obtaining annotated data is [...] Read more.
The detection of anomalies in dam deformation is paramount for evaluating structural integrity and facilitating early warnings, representing a critical aspect of dam health monitoring (DHM). Conventional data-driven methods for dam anomaly detection depend extensively on historical data; however, obtaining annotated data is both expensive and labor-intensive. Consequently, methodologies that leverage unlabeled or semi-labeled data are increasingly gaining popularity. This paper introduces a spatiotemporal contrastive learning pretraining (STCLP) strategy designed to extract discriminative features from unlabeled datasets of dam deformation. STCLP innovatively combines spatial contrastive learning based on temporal contrastive learning to capture representations embodying both spatial and temporal characteristics. Building upon this, a novel anomaly detection method for dam deformation utilizing STCLP is proposed. This method transfers pretrained parameters to targeted downstream classification tasks and leverages prior knowledge for enhanced fine-tuning. For validation, an arch dam serves as the case study. The results reveal that the proposed method demonstrates excellent performance, surpassing other benchmark models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fault Diagnosis & Sensors)
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25 pages, 8907 KB  
Article
Design and Development of an Automatic Layout Algorithm for Laser GNSS RTK
by Jiazhi Tang, Xuan Sun, Xianjian Lu, Jiguang Jia and Shihua Tang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5857; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175857 - 9 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1282
Abstract
At the current stage, the automation level of GNSS RTK equipment is low, and manual operation leads to decreased accuracy and efficiency in setting out. To address these issues, this paper has designed an algorithm for automatic setting out that resolves the common [...] Read more.
At the current stage, the automation level of GNSS RTK equipment is low, and manual operation leads to decreased accuracy and efficiency in setting out. To address these issues, this paper has designed an algorithm for automatic setting out that resolves the common problem of reduced accuracy in conventional RTK. First, the calculation of the laser rotation center is conducted using relevant parameters to calibrate the instrument’s posture and angle. Then, by analyzing the posture information, the relative position and direction of the instrument to the point to be set out are determined, and the rotation angles in the horizontal and vertical directions are calculated. Following this, the data results are analyzed, and the obtained rotation angles are output to achieve automatic control of the instrument. Finally, a rotating laser composed of servo motors and laser modules is used to control the GNSS RTK equipment to locate the set-out point, thereby determining its position on the ground and displaying it in real-time. Compared to traditional GNSS RTK equipment, the proposed automatic setting out algorithm and the developed GNSS laser RTK equipment reduce the setting out error from 15 mm to 10.3 mm. This reduces the barrier to using GNSS RTK equipment, minimizes human influence, enhances the work efficiency of setting out measurements, and ensures high efficiency and stability under complex conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)
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34 pages, 14710 KB  
Article
Research on Spatiotemporal Continuous Information Perception of Overburden Compression–Tensile Strain Transition Zone during Mining and Integrated Safety Guarantee System
by Gang Cheng, Ziyi Wang, Bin Shi, Tianlu Cai, Minfu Liang, Jinghong Wu and Qinliang You
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5856; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175856 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1800
Abstract
The mining of deep underground coal seams induces the movement, failure, and collapse of the overlying rock–soil body, and the development of this damaging effect on the surface causes ground fissures and ground subsidence on the surface. To ensure safety throughout the life [...] Read more.
The mining of deep underground coal seams induces the movement, failure, and collapse of the overlying rock–soil body, and the development of this damaging effect on the surface causes ground fissures and ground subsidence on the surface. To ensure safety throughout the life cycle of the mine, fully distributed, real-time, and continuous sensing and early warning is essential. However, due to mining being a dynamic process with time and space, the overburden movement and collapse induced by mining activities often have a time lag effect. Therefore, how to find a new way to resolve the issue of the existing discontinuous monitoring technology of overburden deformation, obtain the spatiotemporal continuous information of the overlying strata above the coal seam in real time and accurately, and clarify the whole process of deformation in the compression–tensile strain transition zone of overburden has become a key breakthrough in the investigation of overburden deformation mechanism and mining subsidence. On this basis, firstly, the advantages and disadvantages of in situ observation technology of mine rock–soil body were compared and analyzed from the five levels of survey, remote sensing, testing, exploration, and monitoring, and a deformation and failure perception technology based on spatiotemporal continuity was proposed. Secondly, the evolution characteristics and deformation failure mechanism of the compression–tensile strain transition zone of overburden were summarized from three aspects: the typical mode of deformation and collapse of overlying rock–soil body, the key controlling factors of deformation and failure in the overburden compression–tensile strain transition zone, and the stability evaluation of overburden based on reliability theory. Finally, the spatiotemporal continuous perception technology of overburden deformation based on DFOS is introduced in detail, and an integrated coal seam mining overburden safety guarantee system is proposed. The results of the research can provide an important evaluation basis for the design of mining intensity, emergency decisions, and disposal of risks, and they can also give important guidance for the assessment of ground geological and ecological restoration and management caused by underground coal mining. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Optical Sensor for Mining)
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21 pages, 5536 KB  
Article
A Machine Learning Approach for Path Loss Prediction Using Combination of Regression and Classification Models
by Ilia Iliev, Yuliyan Velchev, Peter Z. Petkov, Boncho Bonev, Georgi Iliev and Ivaylo Nachev
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5855; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175855 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3524
Abstract
One of the key parameters in radio link planning is the propagation path loss. Most of the existing methods for its prediction are not characterized by a good balance between accuracy, generality, and low computational complexity. To address this problem, a machine learning [...] Read more.
One of the key parameters in radio link planning is the propagation path loss. Most of the existing methods for its prediction are not characterized by a good balance between accuracy, generality, and low computational complexity. To address this problem, a machine learning approach for path loss prediction is presented in this study. The novelty is the proposal of a compound model, which consists of two regression models and one classifier. The first regression model is adequate when a line-of-sight scenario is fulfilled in radio wave propagation, whereas the second one is appropriate for non-line-of-sight conditions. The classification model is intended to provide a probabilistic output, through which the outputs of the regression models are combined. The number of used input parameters is only five. They are related to the distance, the antenna heights, and the statistics of the terrain profile and line-of-sight obstacles. The proposed approach allows creation of a generalized model that is valid for various types of areas and terrains, different antenna heights, and line-of-sight and non line-of-sight propagation conditions. An experimental dataset is provided by measurements for a variety of relief types (flat, hilly, mountain, and foothill) and for rural, urban, and suburban areas. The experimental results show an excellent performances in terms of a root mean square error of a prediction as low as 7.3 dB and a coefficient of determination as high as 0.702. Although the study covers only one operating frequency of 433 MHz, the proposed model can be trained and applied for any frequency in the decimeter wavelength range. The main reason for the choice of such an operating frequency is because it falls within the range in which many wireless systems of different types are operating. These include Internet of Things (IoT), machine-to-machine (M2M) mesh radio networks, power efficient communication over long distances such as Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN)—LoRa, etc. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Wireless and Mobile Networking)
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35 pages, 9672 KB  
Article
Design and Modelling of MEMS Vibrating Internal Ring Gyroscopes for Harsh Environments
by Waqas Amin Gill, Ian Howard, Ilyas Mazhar and Kristoffer McKee
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5854; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175854 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
This paper presents a design, model, and comparative analysis of two internal MEMS vibrating ring gyroscopes for harsh environmental conditions. The proposed design investigates the symmetric structure of the vibrating ring gyroscopes that operate at the identical shape of wine glass mode resonance [...] Read more.
This paper presents a design, model, and comparative analysis of two internal MEMS vibrating ring gyroscopes for harsh environmental conditions. The proposed design investigates the symmetric structure of the vibrating ring gyroscopes that operate at the identical shape of wine glass mode resonance frequencies for both driving and sensing purposes. This approach improves the gyroscope’s sensitivity and precision in rotational motion. The analysis starts with an investigation of the dynamic behaviour of the vibrating ring gyroscope with the detailed derivation of motion equations. The design geometry, meshing technology, and simulation results were comprehensively evaluated on two internal vibrating ring gyroscopes. The two designs are distinguished by their support spring configurations and internal ring structures. Design I consists of eight semicircular support springs and Design II consists of sixteen semicircular support springs. These designs were modelled and analyzed using finite element analysis (FEA) in Ansys 2023 R1 software. This paper further evaluates static and dynamic performance, emphasizing mode matching and temperature stability. The results reveal that Design II, with additional support springs, offers better mode matching, higher resonance frequencies, and better thermal stability compared to Design I. Additionally, electrostatic, modal, and harmonic analyses highlight the gyroscope’s behaviour under varying DC voltages and environmental conditions. Furthermore, this study investigates the impact of temperature fluctuations on performance, demonstrating the robustness of the designs within a temperature range from −100 °C to 100 °C. These research findings suggest that the internal vibrating ring gyroscopes are highly suitable for harsh conditions such as high temperature and space applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of MEMS/NEMS-Based Sensing Technology)
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22 pages, 4716 KB  
Article
Designing of Airspeed Measurement Method for UAVs Based on MEMS Pressure Sensors
by Zhipeng Chen, Haojie Li, Hang Yu, Yuan Zhao, Jing Ma, Chuanhao Zhang and He Zhang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5853; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175853 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5065
Abstract
Airspeed measurement is crucial for UAV control. To achieve accurate airspeed measurements for UAVs, this paper calculates airspeed data by measuring changes in air pressure and temperature. Based on this, a data processing method based on mechanical filtering and the improved AR-SHAKF algorithm [...] Read more.
Airspeed measurement is crucial for UAV control. To achieve accurate airspeed measurements for UAVs, this paper calculates airspeed data by measuring changes in air pressure and temperature. Based on this, a data processing method based on mechanical filtering and the improved AR-SHAKF algorithm is proposed to indirectly measure airspeed with high precision. In particular, a mathematical model for an airspeed measurement system was established, and an installation method for the pressure sensor was designed to measure the total pressure, static pressure, and temperature. Secondly, the measurement principle of the sensor was analyzed, and a metal tube was installed to act as a mechanical filter, particularly in cases where the aircraft has a significant impact on the gas flow field. Furthermore, a time series model was used to establish the sensor state equation and the initial noise values. It also enhanced the Sage–Husa adaptive filter to analyze the unavoidable error impact of initial noise values. By constraining the range of measurement noise, it achieved adaptive noise estimation. To validate the superiority of the proposed method, a low-complexity airspeed measurement device based on MEMS pressure sensors was designed. The results demonstrate that the airspeed measurement device and the designed velocity measurement method can effectively calculate airspeed with high measurement accuracy and strong interference resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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18 pages, 4323 KB  
Article
One-Dimensional ZnO Nanorod Array Grown on Ag Nanowire Mesh/ZnO Composite Seed Layer for H2 Gas Sensing and UV Detection Applications
by Fang-Hsing Wang, An-Jhe Li, Han-Wen Liu and Tsung-Kuei Kang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5852; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175852 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1826
Abstract
Photodetectors and gas sensors are vital in modern technology, spanning from environmental monitoring to biomedical diagnostics. This paper explores the UV detection and gas sensing properties of a zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorod array (ZNA) grown on silver nanowire mesh (AgNM) using a hydrothermal [...] Read more.
Photodetectors and gas sensors are vital in modern technology, spanning from environmental monitoring to biomedical diagnostics. This paper explores the UV detection and gas sensing properties of a zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorod array (ZNA) grown on silver nanowire mesh (AgNM) using a hydrothermal method. We examined the impact of different zinc acetate precursor concentrations on their properties. Results show the AgNM forms a network with high transparency (79%) and low sheet resistance (7.23 Ω/□). A sol–gel ZnO thin film was coated on this mesh, providing a seed layer with a hexagonal wurtzite structure. Increasing the precursor concentration alters the diameter, length, and area density of ZNAs, affecting their performance. The ZNA-AgNM-based photodetector shows enhanced dark current and photocurrent with increasing precursor concentration, achieving a maximum photoresponsivity of 114 A/W at 374 nm and a detectivity of 6.37 × 1014 Jones at 0.05 M zinc acetate. For gas sensing, the resistance of ZNA-AgNM-based sensors decreases with temperature, with the best hydrogen response (2.71) at 300 °C and 0.04 M precursor concentration. These findings highlight the potential of ZNA-AgNM for high-performance UV photodetectors and hydrogen gas sensors, offering an alternative way for the development of future sensing devices with enhanced performance and functionality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nano-Technologies for Sensing: From Device Fabrication to Applications)
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30 pages, 1978 KB  
Article
RDSC: Range-Based Device Spatial Clustering for IoT Networks
by Fouad Achkouty, Laurent Gallon and Richard Chbeir
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5851; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175851 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1662
Abstract
The growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) has become a crucial area of modern research. While the increasing number of IoT devices has driven significant advancements, it has also introduced several challenges, such as data storage, data privacy, communication protocols, complex network [...] Read more.
The growth of the Internet of Things (IoT) has become a crucial area of modern research. While the increasing number of IoT devices has driven significant advancements, it has also introduced several challenges, such as data storage, data privacy, communication protocols, complex network topologies, and IoT device management. In essence, the management of IoT devices is becoming more and more challenging, especially with the limited capacity and power of the IoT devices. The devices, having limited capacities, cannot store the information of the entire environment at once. In addition, device power consumption can affect network performance and stability. The devices’ sensing areas with device grouping and management can simplify further networking tasks and improve response quality with data aggregation and correction techniques. In fact, most research papers are looking forward to expanding network lifetimes by relying on devices with high power capabilities. This paper proposes a device spatial clustering technique that covers crucial challenges in IoT. Our approach groups the dispersed devices to create clusters of connected devices while considering their coverage, their storage capacities, and their power. A new clustering protocol alongside a new clustering algorithm is introduced, resolving the aforementioned challenges. Moreover, a technique for non-sensed area extraction is presented. The efficiency of the proposed approach has been evaluated with extensive experiments that gave notable results. Our technique was also compared with other clustering algorithms, showing the different results of these algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence, Security, Trust and Privacy Advances in IoT, Bigdata and 5G Networks (2nd Edition))
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19 pages, 10893 KB  
Article
An Improved YOLOv8 OBB Model for Ship Detection through Stable Diffusion Data Augmentation
by Sang Feng, Yi Huang and Ning Zhang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5850; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175850 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5758
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with cameras offer extensive monitoring capabilities and exceptional maneuverability, making them ideal for real-time ship detection and effective ship management. However, ship detection by camera-equipped UAVs faces challenges when it comes to multi-viewpoints, multi-scales, environmental variability, and dataset scarcity. [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with cameras offer extensive monitoring capabilities and exceptional maneuverability, making them ideal for real-time ship detection and effective ship management. However, ship detection by camera-equipped UAVs faces challenges when it comes to multi-viewpoints, multi-scales, environmental variability, and dataset scarcity. To overcome these challenges, we proposed a data augmentation method based on stable diffusion to generate new images for expanding the dataset. Additionally, we improve the YOLOv8n OBB model by incorporating the BiFPN structure and EMA module, enhancing its ability to detect multi-viewpoint and multi-scale ship instances. Through multiple comparative experiments, we evaluated the effectiveness of our proposed data augmentation method and the improved model. The results indicated that our proposed data augmentation method is effective for low-volume datasets with complex object features. The YOLOv8n-BiFPN-EMA OBB model we proposed performed well in detecting multi-viewpoint and multi-scale ship instances, achieving the mAP (@0.5) of 92.3%, the mAP (@0.5:0.95) of 77.5%, a reduction of 0.8 million in model parameters, and a detection speed that satisfies real-time ship detection requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Deep-Learning-Based Sensing, Imaging, and Video Processing)
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12 pages, 1198 KB  
Article
Visual Deprivation’s Impact on Dynamic Posture Control of Trunk: A Comprehensive Sensing Information Analysis of Neurophysiological Mechanisms
by Anna Sasaki, Honoka Nagae, Yukio Furusaka, Kei Yasukawa, Hayato Shigetoh, Takayuki Kodama and Junya Miyazaki
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5849; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175849 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2073
Abstract
Visual information affects static postural control, but how it affects dynamic postural control still needs to be fully understood. This study investigated the effect of proprioception weighting, influenced by the presence or absence of visual information, on dynamic posture control during voluntary trunk [...] Read more.
Visual information affects static postural control, but how it affects dynamic postural control still needs to be fully understood. This study investigated the effect of proprioception weighting, influenced by the presence or absence of visual information, on dynamic posture control during voluntary trunk movements. We recorded trunk movement angle and angular velocity, center of pressure (COP), electromyographic, and electroencephalography signals from 35 healthy young adults performing a standing trunk flexion–extension task under two conditions (Vision and No-Vision). A random forest analysis identified the 10 most important variables for classifying the conditions, followed by a Wilcoxon signed-rank test. The results showed lower maximum forward COP displacement and trunk flexion angle, and faster maximum flexion angular velocity in the No-Vision condition. Additionally, the alpha/beta ratio of the POz during the switch phase was higher in the No-Vision condition. These findings suggest that visual deprivation affects cognitive- and sensory-integration-related brain regions during movement phases, indicating that sensory re-weighting due to visual deprivation impacts motor control. The effects of visual deprivation on motor control may be used for evaluation and therapeutic interventions in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis of Motion and Postural Control: Sensor Methods and Data Analytics—Third Edition)
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13 pages, 7338 KB  
Article
A Combined Sensor Design Applied to Large-Scale Measurement Systems
by Xiao Pan, Huashuai Ren, Fei Liu, Jiapei Li, Pengfei Cheng and Zhongwen Deng
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5848; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175848 - 9 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1510
Abstract
The photoelectric sensing unit in a large-space measurement system primarily determines the measurement accuracy of the system. Aiming to resolve the problem whereby existing sensing units have difficulty accurately measuring the hidden points and free-form surfaces in large components, in this study, we [...] Read more.
The photoelectric sensing unit in a large-space measurement system primarily determines the measurement accuracy of the system. Aiming to resolve the problem whereby existing sensing units have difficulty accurately measuring the hidden points and free-form surfaces in large components, in this study, we designed a multi-node fusion of a combined sensor. Firstly, a multi-node fusion hidden-point measurement model and a solution model are established, and the measurement results converge after the number of nodes is simulated to be nine. Secondly, an adaptive front-end photoelectric conditioning circuit, including signal amplification, filtering, and adjustable level is designed, and the accuracy of the circuit function is verified. Then, a nonlinear least-squares calibration method is proposed by combining the constraints of the multi-position vector cones, and the internal parameters of the probe, in relation to the various detection nodes, are calibrated. Finally, a distributed system and laser tracking system are introduced to establish a fusion experimental validation platform, and the results show that the standard deviation and accuracy of the three-axis measurement of the test point of the combined sensor in the measurement area of 7000 mm × 7000 mm × 3000 mm are better than 0.026 mm and 0.24 mm, respectively, and the accuracy of the length measurement is within 0.28 mm. Further, the measurement accuracy of the hidden point of the aircraft hood and the free-form surface is better than 0.26 mm, which can meet most of the industrial measurement needs and expand the application field of large-space measurement systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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18 pages, 5824 KB  
Article
A Fusion Tracking Algorithm for Electro-Optical Theodolite Based on the Three-State Transition Model
by Shixue Zhang, Houfeng Wang, Liduo Song, Hongwen Li and Shuai Liu
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5847; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175847 - 9 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1244
Abstract
This study presents a novel approach to address the autonomous stable tracking issue in electro-optical theodolite operating in closed-loop mode. The proposed methodology includes a multi-sensor adaptive weighted fusion algorithm and a fusion tracking algorithm based on a three-state transition model. A refined [...] Read more.
This study presents a novel approach to address the autonomous stable tracking issue in electro-optical theodolite operating in closed-loop mode. The proposed methodology includes a multi-sensor adaptive weighted fusion algorithm and a fusion tracking algorithm based on a three-state transition model. A refined recursive formula for error covariance estimation is developed by integrating attenuation factors and least squares extrapolation. This formula is employed to formulate a multi-sensor weighted fusion algorithm that utilizes error covariance estimation. By assigning weighted coefficients to calculate the residual of the newly introduced error term and defining the sensor’s unique states based on these coefficients, a fusion tracking algorithm grounded on the three-state transition model is introduced. In cases of interference or sensor failure, the algorithm either computes the weighted fusion value of the multi-sensor measurement or triggers autonomous sensor switching to ensure the autonomous and stable measurement of the theodolite. Experimental results indicate that when a specific sensor is affected by interference or the off-target amount cannot be extracted, the algorithm can swiftly switch to an alternative sensor. This capability facilitates the precise and consistent generation of data, thereby ensuring the stable operation of the tracking system. Furthermore, the algorithm demonstrates robustness across various measurement scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Optical Sensors)
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19 pages, 2917 KB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Techniques for Water Consumption Prediction: A Case Study from Kocaeli Province
by Kasim Görenekli and Ali Gülbağ
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5846; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175846 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2728
Abstract
This study presents a comparative analysis of various Machine Learning (ML) techniques for predicting water consumption using a comprehensive dataset from Kocaeli Province, Turkey. Accurate prediction of water consumption is crucial for effective water resource management and planning, especially considering the significant impact [...] Read more.
This study presents a comparative analysis of various Machine Learning (ML) techniques for predicting water consumption using a comprehensive dataset from Kocaeli Province, Turkey. Accurate prediction of water consumption is crucial for effective water resource management and planning, especially considering the significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on water usage patterns. A total of four ML models, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Gradient Boosting Machines (GBM), were evaluated. Additionally, optimization techniques such as Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and the Second-Order Optimization (SOO) Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) algorithm were employed to enhance the performance of the ML models. These models incorporate historical data from previous months to enhance model accuracy and generalizability, allowing for robust predictions that account for both short-term fluctuations and long-term trends. The performance of each model was assessed using cross-validation. The R2 and correlation values obtained in this study for the best-performing models are highlighted in the results section. For instance, the GBM model achieved an R2 value of 0.881, indicating a strong capability in capturing the underlying patterns in the data. This study is one of the first to conduct a comprehensive analysis of water consumption prediction using machine learning algorithms on a large-scale dataset of 5000 subscribers, including the unique conditions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. The results highlight the strengths and limitations of each technique, providing insights into their applicability for water consumption prediction. This study aims to enhance the understanding of ML applications in water management and offers practical recommendations for future research and implementation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Internet of Things)
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19 pages, 5464 KB  
Article
A Multi-Scale Liver Tumor Segmentation Method Based on Residual and Hybrid Attention Enhanced Network with Contextual Integration
by Liyan Sun, Linqing Jiang, Mingcong Wang, Zhenyan Wang and Yi Xin
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5845; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175845 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2210
Abstract
Liver cancer is one of the malignancies with high mortality rates worldwide, and its timely detection and accurate diagnosis are crucial for improving patient prognosis. To address the limitations of traditional image segmentation techniques and the U-Net network in capturing fine image features, [...] Read more.
Liver cancer is one of the malignancies with high mortality rates worldwide, and its timely detection and accurate diagnosis are crucial for improving patient prognosis. To address the limitations of traditional image segmentation techniques and the U-Net network in capturing fine image features, this study proposes an improved model based on the U-Net architecture, named RHEU-Net. By replacing traditional convolution modules in the encoder and decoder with improved residual modules, the network’s feature extraction capabilities and gradient stability are enhanced. A Hybrid Gated Attention (HGA) module is integrated before the skip connections, enabling the parallel processing of channel and spatial attentions, optimizing the feature fusion strategy, and effectively replenishing image details. A Multi-Scale Feature Enhancement (MSFE) layer is introduced at the bottleneck, utilizing multi-scale feature extraction technology to further enhance the expression of receptive fields and contextual information, improving the overall feature representation effect. Testing on the LiTS2017 dataset demonstrated that RHEU-Net achieved Dice scores of 95.72% for liver segmentation and 70.19% for tumor segmentation. These results validate the effectiveness of RHEU-Net and underscore its potential for clinical application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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17 pages, 6764 KB  
Article
Construction of Cu2Y2O5/g-C3N4 Novel Composite for the Sensitive and Selective Trace-Level Electrochemical Detection of Sulfamethazine in Food and Water Samples
by Rajendran Surya, Subramanian Sakthinathan, Ganesh Abinaya Meenakshi, Chung-Lun Yu and Te-Wei Chiu
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5844; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175844 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1787
Abstract
The most frequently used sulfonamide is sulfamethazine (SMZ) because it is often found in foods made from livestock, which is hazardous for individuals. Here, we have developed an easy, quick, selective, and sensitive analytical technique to efficiently detect SMZ. Recently, transition metal oxides [...] Read more.
The most frequently used sulfonamide is sulfamethazine (SMZ) because it is often found in foods made from livestock, which is hazardous for individuals. Here, we have developed an easy, quick, selective, and sensitive analytical technique to efficiently detect SMZ. Recently, transition metal oxides have attracted many researchers for their excellent performance as a promising sensor for SMZ analysis because of their superior redox activity, electrocatalytic activity, electroactive sites, and electron transfer properties. Further, Cu-based oxides have a resilient electrical conductivity; however, to boost it to an extreme extent, a composite including two-dimensional (2D) graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanosheets needs to be constructed and ready as a composite (denoted as g-C3N4/Cu2Y2O5). Moreover, several techniques, including X-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron microscopy analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy were employed to analyze the composites. The electrochemical measurements have revealed that the constructed g-C3N4/Cu2Y2O5 composites exhibit great electrochemical activity. Nevertheless, the sensor achieved outstanding repeatability and reproducibility alongside a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.23 µM, a long linear range of 2 to 276 µM, and an electrode sensitivity of 8.86 µA µM−1 cm−2. Finally, the proposed GCE/g-C3N4/Cu2Y2O5 electrode proved highly effective for detection of SMZ in food samples, with acceptable recoveries. The GCE/g-C3N4/Cu2Y2O5 electrode has been successfully applied to SMZ detection in food and water samples. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances and Applications of Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors)
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13 pages, 3091 KB  
Article
Measurement Method of Stress in High-Voltage Cable Accessories Based on Ultrasonic Longitudinal Wave Attenuation
by Jingang Su, Peng Zhang, Xingwang Huang and Xianhai Pang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5843; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175843 - 9 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1328
Abstract
High-voltage cables are the main arteries of urban power supply. Cable accessories are connecting components between different sections of cables or between cables and other electrical equipment. The stress in the cold shrink tube of cable accessories is a key parameter to ensure [...] Read more.
High-voltage cables are the main arteries of urban power supply. Cable accessories are connecting components between different sections of cables or between cables and other electrical equipment. The stress in the cold shrink tube of cable accessories is a key parameter to ensure the stable operation of the power system. This paper attempts to explore a method for measuring the stress in the cold shrink tube of high-voltage cable accessories based on ultrasonic longitudinal wave attenuation. Firstly, a pulse ultrasonic longitudinal wave testing system based on FPGA is designed, where the ultrasonic sensor operates in a single-transmit, single-receive mode with a frequency of 3 MHz, a repetition frequency of 50 Hz, and a data acquisition and transmission frequency of 40 MHz. Then, through experiments and theoretical calculations, the transmission and attenuation characteristics of ultrasonic longitudinal waves in multi-layer elastic media are studied, revealing an exponential relationship between ultrasonic wave attenuation and the thickness of the cold shrink tube. Finally, by establishing a theoretical model of the radial stress of the cold shrink tube, using the thickness of the cold shrink tube as an intermediate variable, an effective measurement of the stress of the cold shrink tube was achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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10 pages, 1699 KB  
Article
Ultrashort-Echo-Time MRI of the Disco-Vertebral Junction: Modulation of Image Contrast via Echo Subtraction and Echo Times
by Karen C. Chen, Palanan Siriwananrangsun and Won C. Bae
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5842; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175842 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2427
Abstract
Introduction: The disco-vertebral junction (DVJ) of the lumbar spine contains thin structures with short T2 values, including the cartilaginous endplate (CEP) sandwiched between the bony vertebral endplate (VEP) and the nucleus pulposus (NP). We previously demonstrated that ultrashort-echo-time (UTE) MRI, compared to conventional [...] Read more.
Introduction: The disco-vertebral junction (DVJ) of the lumbar spine contains thin structures with short T2 values, including the cartilaginous endplate (CEP) sandwiched between the bony vertebral endplate (VEP) and the nucleus pulposus (NP). We previously demonstrated that ultrashort-echo-time (UTE) MRI, compared to conventional MRI, is able to depict the tissues at the DVJ with improved contrast. In this study, we sought to further optimize UTE MRI by characterizing the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) of these tissues when either single echo or echo subtraction images are used and with varying echo times (TEs). Methods: In four cadaveric lumbar spines, we acquired 3D Cones (a UTE sequence) images at varying TEs from 0.032 ms to 16 ms. Additionally, spin echo T1- and T2-weighted images were acquired. The CNRs of CEP-NP and CEP-VEP were measured in all source images and 3D Cones echo subtraction images. Results: In the spin echo images, it was challenging to distinguish the CEP from the VEP, as both had low signal intensity. However, the 3D Cones source images at the shortest TE of 0.032 ms provided an excellent contrast between the CEP and the VEP. As the TE increased, the contrast decreased in the source images. In contrast, the 3D Cones echo subtraction images showed increasing CNR values as the second TE increased, reaching statistical significance when the second TE was above 10 ms (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Our study highlights the feasibility of incorporating UTE MRI for the evaluation of the DVJ and its advantages over conventional spin echo sequences for improving the contrast between the CEP and adjacent tissues. Additionally, modulation of the contrast for the target tissues can be achieved using either source images or subtraction images, as well as by varying the echo times. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomedical Sensing System Based on Image Analysis)
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16 pages, 3130 KB  
Article
AEPF: Attention-Enabled Point Fusion for 3D Object Detection
by Sachin Sharma, Richard T. Meyer and Zachary D. Asher
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5841; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175841 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2660
Abstract
Current state-of-the-art (SOTA) LiDAR-only detectors perform well for 3D object detection tasks, but point cloud data are typically sparse and lacks semantic information. Detailed semantic information obtained from camera images can be added with existing LiDAR-based detectors to create a robust 3D detection [...] Read more.
Current state-of-the-art (SOTA) LiDAR-only detectors perform well for 3D object detection tasks, but point cloud data are typically sparse and lacks semantic information. Detailed semantic information obtained from camera images can be added with existing LiDAR-based detectors to create a robust 3D detection pipeline. With two different data types, a major challenge in developing multi-modal sensor fusion networks is to achieve effective data fusion while managing computational resources. With separate 2D and 3D feature extraction backbones, feature fusion can become more challenging as these modes generate different gradients, leading to gradient conflicts and suboptimal convergence during network optimization. To this end, we propose a 3D object detection method, Attention-Enabled Point Fusion (AEPF). AEPF uses images and voxelized point cloud data as inputs and estimates the 3D bounding boxes of object locations as outputs. An attention mechanism is introduced to an existing feature fusion strategy to improve 3D detection accuracy and two variants are proposed. These two variants, AEPF-Small and AEPF-Large, address different needs. AEPF-Small, with a lightweight attention module and fewer parameters, offers fast inference. AEPF-Large, with a more complex attention module and increased parameters, provides higher accuracy than baseline models. Experimental results on the KITTI validation set show that AEPF-Small maintains SOTA 3D detection accuracy while inferencing at higher speeds. AEPF-Large achieves mean average precision scores of 91.13, 79.06, and 76.15 for the car class’s easy, medium, and hard targets, respectively, in the KITTI validation set. Results from ablation experiments are also presented to support the choice of model architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensors and Robotics)
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20 pages, 3340 KB  
Article
Implementing Autonomous Control in the Digital-Twins-Based Internet of Robotic Things for Remote Patient Monitoring
by Sangeen Khan, Sehat Ullah, Khalil Ullah, Sulaiman Almutairi and Sulaiman Aftan
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5840; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175840 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3255
Abstract
Conventional patient monitoring methods require skin-to-skin contact, continuous observation, and long working shifts, causing physical and mental stress for medical professionals. Remote patient monitoring (RPM) assists healthcare workers in monitoring patients distantly using various wearable sensors, reducing stress and infection risk. RPM can [...] Read more.
Conventional patient monitoring methods require skin-to-skin contact, continuous observation, and long working shifts, causing physical and mental stress for medical professionals. Remote patient monitoring (RPM) assists healthcare workers in monitoring patients distantly using various wearable sensors, reducing stress and infection risk. RPM can be enabled by using the Digital Twins (DTs)-based Internet of Robotic Things (IoRT) that merges robotics with the Internet of Things (IoT) and creates a virtual twin (VT) that acquires sensor data from the physical twin (PT) during operation to reflect its behavior. However, manual navigation of PT causes cognitive fatigue for the operator, affecting trust dynamics, satisfaction, and task performance. Also, operating manual systems requires proper training and long-term experience. This research implements autonomous control in the DTs-based IoRT to remotely monitor patients with chronic or contagious diseases. This work extends our previous paper that required the user to manually operate the PT using its VT to collect patient data for medical inspection. The proposed decision-making algorithm enables the PT to autonomously navigate towards the patient’s room, collect and transmit health data, and return to the base station while avoiding various obstacles. Rather than manually navigating, the medical personnel direct the PT to a specific target position using the Menu buttons. The medical staff can monitor the PT and the received sensor information in the pre-built virtual environment (VE). Based on the operator’s preference, manual control of the PT is also achievable. The experimental outcomes and comparative analysis verify the efficiency of the proposed system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Internet of Things)
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16 pages, 1712 KB  
Article
Evaluation of Smartphone Technology on Spatiotemporal Gait in Older and Diseased Adult Populations
by Coby Contreras, Ethan C. Stanley, Chanc Deschamps-Prescott, Susan Burnap, Madison Hopkins, Bennett Browning and Jesse C. Christensen
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5839; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175839 - 9 Sep 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2263
Abstract
Objective: Advancements in smartphone technology provide availability to evaluate movement in a more practical and feasible manner, improving clinicians’ ability to diagnose and treat adults at risk for mobility loss. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity and reliability of [...] Read more.
Objective: Advancements in smartphone technology provide availability to evaluate movement in a more practical and feasible manner, improving clinicians’ ability to diagnose and treat adults at risk for mobility loss. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity and reliability of a smartphone application to measure spatiotemporal outcomes during level (primary) and uphill/downhill (secondary) walking with and without an assistive device for older adults (OAs), Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and cerebrovascular accident (CVA) populations. Methods: A total of 50 adults (OA = 20; PD = 15; CVA = 15) underwent gait analysis at self-selected gait speeds under 0-degree, 5-degree uphill and 5-degree downhill environments. The validity and reliability of the smartphone outcomes were compared to a motion-capture laboratory. Bland–Altman analysis was used to evaluate limits of agreement between the two systems. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were used to determine absolute agreement, and Pearson correlation coefficients (r) were used to assess the strength of the association between the two systems. Results: For level walking, Bland–Altman analysis revealed relatively equal estimations of spatiotemporal outcomes between systems for OAs without an assistive device and slight to mild under- and overestimations of outcomes between systems for PD and CVA with and without an assistive device. Moderate to very high correlations between systems (without an assistive device: OA r-range, 0.72–0.99; PD r-range, 0.87–0.97; CVA r-range, 0.56–0.99; with an assistive device: PD r-range, 0.35–0.98; CVA r-range, 0.50–0.99) were also observed. Poor to excellent ICCs for reliability between systems (without an assistive device: OA ICC range, 0.71–0.99; PD ICC range, 0.73–0.97; CVA ICC range, 0.56–0.99; with an assistive device: PD ICC range, 0.22–0.98; CVA ICC range, 0.44–0.99) were observed across all outcomes. Conclusions: This smartphone application can be clinically useful in detecting most spatiotemporal outcomes in various walking environments for older and diseased adults at risk for mobility loss. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors for Gait, Human Movement Analysis, and Health Monitoring)
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22 pages, 894 KB  
Article
Enhancing Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Security: A Zero-Knowledge Proof Approach with Zero-Knowledge Succinct Non-Interactive Arguments of Knowledge for Authentication and Location Proof
by Athanasios Koulianos, Panagiotis Paraskevopoulos, Antonios Litke and Nikolaos K. Papadakis
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5838; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175838 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3787
Abstract
UAVs are increasingly being used in various domains, from personal and commercial applications to military operations. Ensuring the security and trustworthiness of UAV communications is crucial, and blockchain technology has been explored as a solution. However, privacy remains a challenge, especially in public [...] Read more.
UAVs are increasingly being used in various domains, from personal and commercial applications to military operations. Ensuring the security and trustworthiness of UAV communications is crucial, and blockchain technology has been explored as a solution. However, privacy remains a challenge, especially in public blockchains. In this work, we propose a novel approach utilizing zero-knowledge proof techniques, specifically zk-SNARKs, which are non-interactive cryptographic proofs. This approach allows UAVs to prove their authenticity or location without disclosing sensitive information. We generated zk-SNARK proofs using the Zokrates tool on a Raspberry Pi, simulating a drone environment, and analyzed power consumption and CPU utilization. The results are promising, especially in the case of larger drones with higher battery capacities. Ethereum was chosen as the public blockchain platform, with smart contracts developed in Solidity and tested on the Sepolia testnet using Remix IDE. This novel proposed approach paves the way for a new path of research in the UAV area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV Secure Communication for IoT Applications)
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16 pages, 1521 KB  
Article
A Novel End-to-End Deep Learning Framework for Chip Packaging Defect Detection
by Siyi Zhou, Shunhua Yao, Tao Shen and Qingwang Wang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5837; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175837 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4446
Abstract
As semiconductor chip manufacturing technology advances, chip structures are becoming more complex, leading to an increased likelihood of void defects in the solder layer during packaging. However, identifying void defects in packaged chips remains a significant challenge due to the complex chip background, [...] Read more.
As semiconductor chip manufacturing technology advances, chip structures are becoming more complex, leading to an increased likelihood of void defects in the solder layer during packaging. However, identifying void defects in packaged chips remains a significant challenge due to the complex chip background, varying defect sizes and shapes, and blurred boundaries between voids and their surroundings. To address these challenges, we present a deep-learning-based framework for void defect segmentation in chip packaging. The framework consists of two main components: a solder region extraction method and a void defect segmentation network. The solder region extraction method includes a lightweight segmentation network and a rotation correction algorithm that eliminates background noise and accurately captures the solder region of the chip. The void defect segmentation network is designed for efficient and accurate defect segmentation. To cope with the variability of void defect shapes and sizes, we propose a Mamba model-based encoder that uses a visual state space module for multi-scale information extraction. In addition, we propose an interactive dual-stream decoder that uses a feature correlation cross gate module to fuse the streams’ features to improve their correlation and produce more accurate void defect segmentation maps. The effectiveness of the framework is evaluated through quantitative and qualitative experiments on our custom X-ray chip dataset. Furthermore, the proposed void defect segmentation framework for chip packaging has been applied to a real factory inspection line, achieving an accuracy of 93.3% in chip qualification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fault Diagnosis & Sensors)
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23 pages, 21985 KB  
Article
Impact of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Changes on Carbon Stocks and Economic Implications in Calabria Using Google Earth Engine (GEE)
by Yasir Hassan Khachoo, Matteo Cutugno, Umberto Robustelli and Giovanni Pugliano
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5836; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175836 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3961
Abstract
Terrestrial ecosystems play a crucial role in global carbon cycling by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere and storing it primarily in living biomass and soil. Monitoring terrestrial carbon stocks is essential for understanding the impacts of changes in land use on carbon sequestration. [...] Read more.
Terrestrial ecosystems play a crucial role in global carbon cycling by sequestering carbon from the atmosphere and storing it primarily in living biomass and soil. Monitoring terrestrial carbon stocks is essential for understanding the impacts of changes in land use on carbon sequestration. This study investigates the potential of remote sensing techniques and the Google Earth Engine to map and monitor changes in the forests of Calabria (Italy) over the past two decades. Using satellite-sourced Corine land cover datasets and the InVEST model, changes in Land Use Land Cover (LULC), and carbon concentrations are analyzed, providing insights into the carbon dynamics of the region. Furthermore, cellular automata and Markov chain techniques are used to simulate the future spatial and temporal dynamics of LULC. The results reveal notable fluctuations in LULC; specifically, settlement and bare land have expanded at the expense of forested and grassland areas. These land use and land cover changes significantly declined the overall carbon stocks in Calabria between 2000 and 2024, resulting in notable economic impacts. The region experienced periods of both decline and growth in carbon concentration, with overall losses resulting in economic impacts up to EUR 357.57 million and carbon losses equivalent to 6,558,069.68 Mg of CO 2 emissions during periods of decline. Conversely, during periods of carbon gain, the economic benefit reached EUR 41.26 million, with sequestered carbon equivalent to 756,919.47 Mg of CO 2 emissions. This research aims to highlight the critical role of satellite data in enhancing our understanding and development of comprehensive strategies for managing carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metrology for Living Environment 2024)
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26 pages, 14062 KB  
Article
Off-Grid Underwater Acoustic Source Direction-of-Arrival Estimation Method Based on Iterative Empirical Mode Decomposition Interval Threshold
by Chuanxi Xing, Guangzhi Tan and Saimeng Dong
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5835; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175835 - 8 Sep 2024
Viewed by 1729
Abstract
To solve the problem that the hydrophone arrays are disturbed by ocean noise when collecting signals in shallow seas, resulting in reduced accuracy and resolution of target orientation estimation, a direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation algorithm based on iterative EMD interval thresholding (EMD-IIT) and off-grid [...] Read more.
To solve the problem that the hydrophone arrays are disturbed by ocean noise when collecting signals in shallow seas, resulting in reduced accuracy and resolution of target orientation estimation, a direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation algorithm based on iterative EMD interval thresholding (EMD-IIT) and off-grid sparse Bayesian learning is proposed. Firstly, the noisy signal acquired by the hydrophone array is denoised by the EMD-IIT algorithm. Secondly, the singular value decomposition is performed on the denoised signal, and then an off-grid sparse reconstruction model is established. Finally, the maximum a posteriori probability of the target signal is obtained by the Bayesian learning algorithm, and the DOA estimate of the target is derived to achieve the orientation estimation of the target. Simulation analysis and sea trial data results show that the algorithm achieves a resolution probability of 100% at an azimuthal separation of 8° between adjacent signal sources. At a low signal-to-noise ratio of −9 dB, the resolution probability reaches 100%. Compared with the conventional MUSIC-like and OGSBI-SVD algorithms, this algorithm can effectively eliminate noise interference and provides better performance in terms of localization accuracy, algorithm runtime, and algorithm robustness. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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25 pages, 1972 KB  
Article
FL-DSFA: Securing RPL-Based IoT Networks against Selective Forwarding Attacks Using Federated Learning
by Rabia Khan, Noshina Tariq, Muhammad Ashraf, Farrukh Aslam Khan, Saira Shafi and Aftab Ali
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5834; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175834 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3086
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a significant technological advancement that allows for seamless device integration and data flow. The development of the IoT has led to the emergence of several solutions in various sectors. However, rapid popularization also has its challenges, and [...] Read more.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a significant technological advancement that allows for seamless device integration and data flow. The development of the IoT has led to the emergence of several solutions in various sectors. However, rapid popularization also has its challenges, and one of the most serious challenges is the security of the IoT. Security is a major concern, particularly routing attacks in the core network, which may cause severe damage due to information loss. Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL), a routing protocol used for IoT devices, is faced with selective forwarding attacks. In this paper, we present a federated learning-based detection technique for detecting selective forwarding attacks, termed FL-DSFA. A lightweight model involving the IoT Routing Attack Dataset (IRAD), which comprises Hello Flood (HF), Decreased Rank (DR), and Version Number (VN), is used in this technique to increase the detection efficiency. The attacks on IoT threaten the security of the IoT system since they mainly focus on essential elements of RPL. The components include control messages, routing topologies, repair procedures, and resources within sensor networks. Binary classification approaches have been used to assess the training efficiency of the proposed model. The training step includes the implementation of machine learning algorithms, including logistic regression (LR), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), and naive Bayes (NB). The comparative analysis illustrates that this study, with SVM and KNN classifiers, exhibits the highest accuracy during training and achieves the most efficient runtime performance. The proposed system demonstrates exceptional performance, achieving a prediction precision of 97.50%, an accuracy of 95%, a recall rate of 98.33%, and an F1 score of 97.01%. It outperforms the current leading research in this field, with its classification results, scalability, and enhanced privacy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy-Preserving Techniques for IoT and Communication Networks)
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11 pages, 2723 KB  
Article
Validity of Valor Inertial Measurement Unit for Upper and Lower Extremity Joint Angles
by Jacob Smith, Dhyey Parikh, Vincent Tate, Safeer Farrukh Siddicky and Hao-Yuan Hsiao
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5833; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175833 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2825
Abstract
Inertial measurement units (IMU) are increasingly utilized to capture biomechanical measures such as joint kinematics outside traditional biomechanics laboratories. These wearable sensors have been proven to help clinicians and engineers monitor rehabilitation progress, improve prosthesis development, and record human performance in a variety [...] Read more.
Inertial measurement units (IMU) are increasingly utilized to capture biomechanical measures such as joint kinematics outside traditional biomechanics laboratories. These wearable sensors have been proven to help clinicians and engineers monitor rehabilitation progress, improve prosthesis development, and record human performance in a variety of settings. The Valor IMU aims to offer a portable motion capture alternative to provide reliable and accurate joint kinematics when compared to industry gold standard optical motion capture cameras. However, IMUs can have disturbances in their measurements caused by magnetic fields, drift, and inappropriate calibration routines. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation is to validate the joint angles captured by the Valor IMU in comparison to an optical motion capture system across a variety of movements. Our findings showed mean absolute differences between Valor IMU and Vicon motion capture across all subjects’ joint angles. The tasks ranged from 1.81 degrees to 17.46 degrees, the root mean squared errors ranged from 1.89 degrees to 16.62 degrees, and interclass correlation coefficient agreements ranged from 0.57 to 0.99. The results in the current paper further promote the usage of the IMU system outside traditional biomechanical laboratories. Future examinations of this IMU should include smaller, modular IMUs with non-slip Velcro bands and further validation regarding transverse plane joint kinematics such as joint internal/external rotations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Wearable Sensor for Human Movement Monitoring)
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18 pages, 2308 KB  
Article
Impact of a Precision Intervention for Vascular Health in Middle-Aged and Older Postmenopausal Women Using Polar Heart Rate Sensors: A 24-Week RCT Study Based on the New Compilation of Tai Chi (Bafa Wubu)
by Xiaona Wang, Yanli Han, Haojie Li, Xin Wang and Guixian Wang
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5832; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175832 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2540
Abstract
(1) Background: This study utilized a 24-week intervention incorporating heart rate sensors for real-time monitoring of intervention training, aiming to comprehensively assess the effects of Tai Chi on vascular endothelial function, atherosclerosis progression, and lipid metabolism. The insights gained may inform personalized non-pharmacological [...] Read more.
(1) Background: This study utilized a 24-week intervention incorporating heart rate sensors for real-time monitoring of intervention training, aiming to comprehensively assess the effects of Tai Chi on vascular endothelial function, atherosclerosis progression, and lipid metabolism. The insights gained may inform personalized non-pharmacological interventions to enhance the management of cardiovascular health in this population to provide sustainable benefits and improve quality of life. (2) Methods: Forty postmenopausal middle-aged and elderly women were randomly assigned to an exercise or control group. The exercise group underwent a 24-week Tai Chi (BaFa WuBu) training intervention with real-time heart rate monitoring using Polar sensors. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included body composition, blood pressure, vascularity, and blood parameters measured with the Inbody 720, Vascular Endothelial Function Detector, and Arteriosclerosis. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and mixed-design ANOVA to assess the effects of time, group, and their interactions on study outcomes. (3) Results: After training through 24 weeks of Tai Chi (BaFa WuBu) intervention, compared with the control group, systolic blood pressure in the exercise group was significantly lower (p < 0.05), and the difference between left and right arm pulse pressure, left and right ankle mean arterial pressure, left and right side baPWV, left and right side ABI, TC, TG, LDL, and blood pressure viscosity were all very significantly lower (p < 0.01), and the diastolic blood pressure was significantly higher (p < 0.05). Compared with baseline values in the exercise group, systolic blood pressure, right and left arm pulse pressure difference, right and left ankle mean arterial pressure, right and left side baPWV, right and left side ABI, TC, TG, LDL, and blood pressure viscosity decreased very significantly (p < 0.01) and diastolic blood pressure and FMD increased very significantly (p < 0.01) in the exercise group after the intervention. (4) Conclusions: In our study, a 24-week Tai Chi (BaFa WuBu) program significantly improved vascular health in middle-aged and older postmenopausal women. This simplified Tai Chi form is gentle and effective, ideal for older adults. Regular practice led to reduced vascular obstruction, improved lipid metabolism, and enhanced vascular endothelial function, crucial for preventing vascular diseases. The real-time heart rate sensors used were pivotal, enabling precise monitoring and adjustment of exercise intensity, thereby enhancing the study’s scientific rigor and supporting Tai Chi (BaFa WuBu) as a beneficial therapeutic exercise. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing and Signal Processing Technologies for Outpatient Monitoring and Rehabilitation)
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20 pages, 5766 KB  
Article
High-Accuracy Calibration Method of a Thermal Camera Using Two Reference Blackbodies
by Tomasz Sosnowski, Mariusz Kastek, Krzysztof Sawicki, Andrzej Ligienza, Sławomir Gogler and Bogusław Więcek
Sensors 2024, 24(17), 5831; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175831 - 8 Sep 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5631
Abstract
Body temperature is one of the most important physiological parameters of a human being used to assess his basic vital functions. In medical practice, various types of measuring instruments are used to measure temperature, such as liquid thermometers, electronic thermometers, non-contact ear thermometers, [...] Read more.
Body temperature is one of the most important physiological parameters of a human being used to assess his basic vital functions. In medical practice, various types of measuring instruments are used to measure temperature, such as liquid thermometers, electronic thermometers, non-contact ear thermometers, and non-contact forehead thermometers. Such body temperature measurement techniques require the connection of appropriate sensors to a person, and non-contact thermometers operate over short distances and force a specific position of the person during the measurement. As a result, using the above methods, it is practically impossible to perform body temperature measurements of a moving human being. A thermal imaging camera can be used effectively for the purpose of the temperature measurement of moving objects, but the remote measurement of a human body temperature using a thermal imaging camera is affected by many factors that are difficult to control. Accurate remote measurement of human body temperature requires a measurement system that implements a specialized temperature determination algorithm. This article presents a model of a measurement system that facilitates the development of a highly accurate temperature measurement method. For the model, its parameters were determined on the calibration stand. The correct operation of the developed method and the effectiveness of temperature measurement have been confirmed by tests on a test stand using reference radiation sources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Optoelectronic Technology: From Basic Research to Applications)
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