Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Materials
2.3. UFES vWalker
2.4. The 3D Motion Capture System
2.5. Immersive VR Scenario
2.6. Experimental Protocol
2.7. Variables
- Stride length (meters): the mean of the distance between two consecutive heel strikes of the same foot in the 10 MWT.
- Stride number: the number of steps in the 10 MWT.
- Gait speed (meters per second): the mean walk velocity in the 10 MWT.
- Cadence (steps per second): the mean number of steps per second in the 10 MWT.
- Stance phase (seconds): the mean time in the stance phase in each gait cycle in the 10 MWT.
- Swing phase (seconds): the mean time in the swing phase in each gait cycle in the 10 MWT.
- Time (seconds): the time to complete the 10 MWT.
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Spatiotemporal Parameters
3.2. Hip Joint
3.3. Knee Joint
3.4. Ankle Joint
3.5. SEQ
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
10 MWT | 10-Meter Walk Test |
AW | Smart Walker-assisted Gait |
FW | Free Walking |
HREI | Human–Robot-Environment Interaction |
HRI | Human–Robot Interaction |
LiDAR | Light Detection and Ranging |
MC | Motion Capture |
OC | Odometry and Control |
ROS | Robot Operating System |
SEQ | Suitability Evaluation Questionnaire for Virtual Rehabilitation 254 Systems |
SSQ | Simulator Sickness Questionnaire |
SW | Smart Walker |
VRAW | Smart Walker-assisted Gait Plus VR Assistance |
VR | Virtual Reality |
VRI | Virtual Reality Integration |
WHO | World Health Organization |
Appendix A
Parameters | FW | AW | VRAW | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Min | Max | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | |
Stride Length (m) | 1.32 (0.1) | 1.19 | 1.54 | 0.64 (0.11) | 0.44 | 0.80 | 0.67 (0.13) | 0.48 | 0.85 |
Stride Number (steps) | 7.29 (0.8) | 6 | 9 | 16.48 (3.03) | 12 | 23 | 15.69 (3.93) | 11 | 24 |
Gait Speed (m/s) | 1.14 (0.11) | 0.90 | 1.3 | 0.32 (0.07) | 0.17 | 0.38 | 0.33 (0.05) | 0.19 | 0.39 |
Cadence (steps/s) | 1.12 (0.09) | 0.99 | 1.31 | 1.97 (0.42) | 1.21 | 2.72 | 2.08 (0.43) | 1.45 | 2.99 |
Stance Phase (s) | 0.65 (0.07) | 0.57 | 0.78 | 1.37 (0.35) | 0.80 | 2.05 | 1.45 (0.33) | 0.99 | 1.95 |
Swing Phase (s) | 0.47 (0.05) | 0.41 | 0.57 | 0.59 (0.12) | 0.40 | 0.80 | 0.63 (0.15) | 0.45 | 1.02 |
Time 10 MWT (s) | 7.52 (0.65) | 6.35 | 8.90 | 30.61 (8.44) | 23.98 | 53.44 | 32.11 (8.71) | 24.70 | 50.38 |
Parameter | F Statistic | p | Effect Size () | Contrasts | p | Effect Size (d) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stride Length | F (2, 26) = 239.05 | <0.001 | 0.89 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 4.64 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 4.17 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.45 | ||||
Stride Number | F (1.42, 18.2) = 50.80 * | <0.001 | 0.69 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 3.01 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.11 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.36 | ||||
Gait Speed | F (2, 26) = 963.49 | <0.001 | 0.96 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 8.94 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 9.67 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.12 | ||||
Cadence | F (2, 26) = 52.80 | <0.001 | 0.61 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 2.17 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.31 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =0.72 | 0.33 | ||||
Stance Phase | F (2, 26) = 55.27 | <0.001 | 0.63 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 2.19 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.42 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =0.96 | 0.28 | ||||
Swing Phase | F (1.32, 17.16) = 13.58 | <0.001 | 0.28 | FW vs. AW | =0.003 | 1.44 |
FW vs. VRAW | =0.001 | 1.25 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =0.26 | 0.49 | ||||
Time 10 MWT | F (2, 26) = 67.39 | <0.001 | 0.73 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 2.79 |
FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.96 | ||||
AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.15 |
Parameters | FW | AW | VRAW | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | ||
H1 (°) | R | 28.23 (2.99) | 24.02 | 33.87 | =0.54 | 50.83 (7.42) | 38.77 | 70.11 | =0.89 | 49.70 (6.05) | 39.98 | 64.28 | =0.33 |
L | 27.85 (2.82) | 24.11 | 35.22 | 50.7 0(7.45) | 42.27 | 67.83 | 50.61 (5.20) | 43.05 | 59.57 | ||||
H2 (°) | R | 22.32 (3.41) | 16.90 | 29.26 | =0.77 | 45.28 (6.76) | 35.13 | 62.96 | =0.57 | 43.84 (6.33) | 35.78 | 59.57 | =0.73 |
L | 22.53 (3.10) | 18.25 | 30.42 | 44.73 (6.06) | 37.59 | 57.36 | 44.24 (5.00) | 33.91 | 53.49 | ||||
H3 (°) | R | −8.42 (3.46) | −15.75 | −4.04 | =0.08 | 18.98 (8.99) | 6.82 | 35.94 | =0.99 | 19.46 (8.29) | 7.40 | 33.39 | =0.40 |
L | −7.51 (3.05) | −13.59 | −2.44 | 19.22 (8.87) | 9.62 | 38.32 | 18.72 (7.14) | 7.81 | 33.96 | ||||
H4 (°) | R | −2.85 (3.25) | −9.06 | 2.19 | =0.16 | 24.85 (9.66) | 8.82 | 42.56 | =0.99 | 23.95 (8.17) | 12.03 | 38.52 | =0.58 |
L | −2.16 (3.49) | −8.30 | 4.86 | 24.85 (9.38) | 14.37 | 44.08 | 23.45 (8.03) | 13.53 | 42.28 | ||||
H5 (°) | R | 32.79 (2.65) | 28.00 | 36.10 | =0.65 | 52.85 (8.03) | 39.58 | 71.96 | =0.69 | 50.71 (7.42) | 35.31 | 65.87 | =0.08 |
L | 32.58 (2.70) | 27.26 | 36.88 | 53.20 (7.79) | 43.54 | 70.58 | 52.40 (6.72) | 36.93 | 62.34 | ||||
H6 (°) | R | 41.22 (4.04) | 34.75 | 49.02 | =0.06 | 34.45 (5.30) | 24.18 | 44.24 | =0.98 | 32.78 (6.05) | 19.97 | 41.56 | =0.71 |
L | 40.10 (3.28) | 35.15 | 45.55 | 34.46 (4.17) | 27.28 | 41.78 | 33.99 (6.23) | 20.10 | 42.14 | ||||
H7 (°) | R | 9.41 (3.30) | 5.24 | 16.09 | =0.11 | 9.60 (2.65) | 4.93 | 14.46 | =0.75 | 9.81 (2.87) | 5.64 | 15.11 | =0.71 |
L | 10.5 (2.93) | 6.61 | 17.43 | 9.71 (2.57) | 5.40 | 15.55 | 9.60 (3.18) | 3.44 | 14.53 | ||||
H8 (°) | R | −4.32 (1.75) | −9.98 | −3.87 | =0.85 | −8.47 (2.67) | −12.88 | −3.18 | =0.07 | −8.45 (2.91) | −11.55 | −0.35 | =0.23 |
L | −7.27 (2.11) | −10.56 | −3.71 | −10.23 (2.01) | −13.15 | −6.20 | −9.55 (4.94) | −13.99 | 6.18 | ||||
H9 (°) | R | 2.05 (2.73) | −1.29 | 6.18 | =0.10 | 1.12 (4.20) | −5.29 | 7.52 | =0.12 | 1.93 (6.25) | −3.67 | 21.70 | =0.06 |
L | 3.23 (2.56) | −0.56 | 8.21 | −0.54 (2.61) | −3.98 | 5.36 | 0.34 (6.04) | −6.97 | 17.12 | ||||
H10 (°) | R | 9.81 (4.24) | 4.14 | 18.67 | =0.27 | 7.58 (3.15) | 3.78 | 14.55 | =0.90 | 8.11 (3.24) | 3.25 | 15.97 | =0.90 |
L | 9.23 (3.84) | 2.71 | 15.65 | 7.69 (2.74) | 3.90 | 13.35 | 8.15 (3.56) | 2.18 | 13.54 | ||||
H11 (°) | R | 7.47 (3.28) | 2.55 | 14.05 | =0.09 | 9.80 (4.49) | 1.11 | 17.27 | =0.50 | 9.24 (4.87) | 0.51 | 18.67 | =0.27 |
L | 6.01 (2.77) | 2.24 | 13.23 | 9.12 (6.04) | 1.10 | 21.69 | 10.11 (5.69) | 0.89 | 19.48 | ||||
H12 (°) | R | −2.34 (4.65) | −13.61 | 6.15 | =0.35 | 2.22 (4.63) | −6.07 | 10.00 | =0.34 | 1.50 (5.12) | −8.70 | 10.88 | =0.45 |
L | −3.21 (4.24) | −11.17 | 2.02 | 1.44 (5.12) | −5.41 | 13.72 | 1.16 (5.07) | −7.18 | 9.63 |
Parameter | F Statistic | p | Effect Size () | Contrasts | p (R) | Effect Size (d) | p (L) | Effect Size (d) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
H1 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 3.23 | <0.001 | 2.75 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 116.47 | <0.001 | 0.77 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 3.34 | <0.001 | 4.07 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 103.68 | <0.001 | 0.80 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.22 | =1 | 0.01 | |
H2 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 4.44 | <0.001 | 3.50 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 152.21 | <0.001 | 0.79 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 3.34 | <0.001 | 3.95 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 129.53 | <0.001 | 0.83 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.30 | =1 | 0.08 | |
H3 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 3.61 | <0.001 | 3.40 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 166.04 | <0.001 | 0.77 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 4.40 | <0.001 | 4.30 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 161.35 | <0.001 | 0.78 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.08 | =1 | 0.10 | |
H4 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 3.34 | <0.001 | 3.31 | ||||
R | F (1.7, 22.1) = 120.51 * | <0.001 | 0.77 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 4.04 | <0.001 | 3.40 | |
L | F (1.82, 23.92) = 110.34 * | <0.001 | 0.75 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.15 | =1 | 0.22 | |
H5 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 2.64 | <0.001 | 2.51 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 66.51 | <0.001 | 0.67 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.25 | <0.001 | 2.83 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 64.56 | <0.001 | 0.72 | AW vs. VRAW | =0.63 | 0.35 | =1 | 0.10 | |
H6 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.82 | <0.001 | 1.81 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 26.67 | <0.001 | 0.35 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.59 | =0.01 | 0.95 | |
L | F (1.34, 17.42) = 8.54 * | =0.001 | 0.27 | AW vs. VRAW | =0.59 | 0.36 | =1 | 0.09 | |
H7 | FW vs. AW | =1 | 0.09 | =1 | 0.25 | ||||
R | F (1.24, 16.12) = 0.12 * | =0.70 | 0.003 | FW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.12 | =1 | 0.20 | |
L | F (1.3, 16.9) = 0.39 * | =0.48 | 0.02 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.12 | =1 | 0.04 | |
H8 | FW vs. AW | =0.46 | 0.40 | =0.40 | 0.47 | ||||
R | F (2.26, 16.38) = 1.99 | =0.15 | 0.04 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.28 | 0.40 | =0.28 | 0.48 | |
L | F (1.16, 15.08) = 1.05 * | =0.21 | 0.11 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.001 | =1 | 0.12 | |
H9 | FW vs. AW | =0.58 | 0.36 | =0.46 | 1.76 | ||||
R | F (1.26, 16.38) = 0.22 | =0.61 | 0.001 | FW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.02 | =0.28 | 0.48 | |
L | F (1.16, 15.08) = 0.96 * | =0.30 | 0.09 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.17 | =1 | 0.17 | |
H10 | FW vs. AW | =0.38 | 0.44 | =0.64 | 0.35 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 1.96 | =0.16 | 0.07 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.57 | 0.37 | =1 | 0.17 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 0.69 | =0.51 | 0.03 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.15 | =1 | 0.10 | |
H11 | FW vs. AW | =0.13 | 0.60 | =0.16 | 0.56 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 2.28 | =0.12 | 0.06 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.59 | 0.36 | =0.07 | 0.68 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 4.02 | =0.03 | 0.11 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.13 | =1 | 0.18 | |
H12 | FW vs. AW | =0.005 | 1.04 | =0.015 | 0.89 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 9.17 | <0.001 | 0.15 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.017 | 0.88 | =0.008 | 0.98 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 9.58 | <0.001 | 0.17 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.17 | =1 | 0.07 |
Parameters | FW | AW | VRAW | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | ||
K1 (°) | R | 2.86 (5.34) | −3.67 | 15.09 | =0.11 | 26.89 (16.57) | 2.01 | 70.49 | =0.35 * | 22.79 (13.31) | −0.03 | 46.05 | =0.88 |
L | 3.81 (4.85) | −4.34 | 14.78 | 26.33 (14.81) | 1.29 | 63.51 | 22.97 (13.71) | −0.23 | 45.54 | ||||
K2 (°) | R | 10.43 (6.43) | 1.13 | 22.01 | =0.35 * | 20.39 (11.55) | −2.50 | 32.42 | =0.29 * | 21.89 (11.66) | −2.23 | 44.93 | =0.67 |
L | 11.81 (5.23) | −1.24 | 18.04 | 19.53 (9.76) | 2.24 | 30.13 | 21.32 (11.97) | 1.45 | 44.08 | ||||
K3 (°) | R | 0.95 (3.44) | −3.67 | 7.45 | =0.06 | 6.68 (6.67) | −5.60 | 21.35 | =0.86 | 5.54 (6.50) | −5.01 | 20.91 | =0.74 |
L | 2.03 (3.2) | −4.69 | 6.86 | 6.87 (6.30) | −1.06 | 23.33 | 5.76 (5.89) | −2.34 | 20.35 | ||||
K4 (°) | R | 32.73 (3.34) | 25.30 | 36.31 | =0.35 | 28.22 (6.02) | 17.41 | 37.58 | =0.84 | 27.48 (5.81) | 17.96 | 39.53 | =0.70 |
L | 33.26 (4.00) | 22.48 | 39.58 | 28.44 (4.74) | 21.03 | 38.72 | 27.1 (4.88) | 17.79 | 37.50 | ||||
K5 (°) | R | 61.87 (4.35) | 54.25 | 67.43 | =0.39 * | 49.62 (10.78) | 32.46 | 73.87 | =0.04 | 47.67 (9.09) | 30.37 | 62.33 | =0.03 |
L | 62.59 (4.06) | 56.80 | 68.57 | 52.18 (8.25) | 36.84 | 68.25 | 50.08 (7.78) | 34.21 | 60.35 | ||||
K6 (°) | R | 60.92 (4.13) | 56.42 | 68.17 | =0.63 | 44.42 (9.66) | 28.80 | 71.32 | =0.03 * | 42.42 (4.98) | 30.89 | 48.91 | =0.02 |
L | 60.56 (3.26) | 54.99 | 67.25 | 46.96 (8.28) | 31.62 | 67.25 | 44.43 (5.83) | 32.74 | 51.51 | ||||
K7 (°) | R | 1.67 (1.16) | 0.71 | 4.25 | =0.02 * | 1.76 (1.13) | 0.59 | 3.92 | =0.85 | 2.08 (1.28) | 0.89 | 5.27 | =0.26 * |
L | 2.85 (2.04) | 0.65 | 8.61 | 2.08 (1.51) | 0.77 | 5.84 | 1.71 (1.11) | 0.30 | 3.69 | ||||
K8 (°) | R | −1.59 (0.56) | −2.59 | −0.73 | =0.72 | −2.30 (1.00) | −4.31 | −0.40 | =0.09 | −2.13 (0.87) | −3.82 | −0.92 | =0.69 |
L | −1.65 (0.59) | −3.14 | −0.78 | −1.66 (0.87) | −3.81 | −0.36 | −2.24 (1.33) | −5.31 | −0.89 | ||||
K9 (°) | R | −2.92 (1.46) | −6.53 | −1.40 | =0.05 * | −3.01 (2.36) | −7.76 | −0.33 | =0.65 | −2.74 (2.51) | −7.02 | 1.87 | =0.38 |
L | −4.2 (2.32) | −10.33 | −1.30 | −3.38 (2.34) | −7.59 | 0.52 | −3.46 (2.52) | −7.33 | 1.00 | ||||
K10 (°) | R | 11.16 (2.82) | 6.17 | 15.18 | =0.04 | 6.74 (3.21) | 2.98 | 14.90 | =0.79 | 6.04 (2.74) | 2.01 | 11.7 | =0.20 |
L | 12.53 (2.55) | 9.03 | 16.02 | 6.96 (2.20) | 3.78 | 10.01 | 6.88 (2.51) | 1.69 | 10.91 | ||||
K11 (°) | R | 4.14 (1.66) | 0.94 | 6.87 | =0.44 | 3.16 (1.41) | 0.73 | 6.13 | =0.60 | 2.64 (1.18) | 0.95 | 4.74 | =0.13 |
L | 4.59 (1.56) | 2.35 | 7.15 | 2.95 (1.19) | 1.56 | 4.91 | 3.08 (1.23) | 0.72 | 4.88 | ||||
K12 (°) | R | −7.02 (2.06) | −10.98 | −3.09 | =0.11 | −3.57 (2.34) | −8.77 | −0.29 | =0.49 | −3.4 (2.05) | −6.95 | 0.57 | =0.29 |
L | −7.94 (2.03) | −10.95 | −4.71 | −4.01 (1.33) | −5.94 | −1.92 | −4 (1.53) | −6.69 | −1.78 |
Parameter | F Statistic | p | Effect Size () | Contrasts | p (R) | Effect Size (d) | p (L) | Effect Size (d) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K1 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.42 | <0.001 | 1.43 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 23.33 | <0.001 | 0.43 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.44 | <0.001 | 4.34 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 23.37 | <0.001 | 0.43 | AW vs. VRAW | =0.55 | 0.38 | =0.54 | 0.38 | |
K2 | FW vs. AW | =0.016 | 0.89 | <0.001 | 0.85 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 9.78 | <0.001 | 0.21 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.005 | 1.06 | <0.001 | 0.90 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 129.53 | <0.001 | 0.17 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.16 | =1 | 0.15 | |
K3 | FW vs. AW | =0.006 | 1.02 | =0.03 | 0.78 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 8.95 | =0.001 | 0.17 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.04 | 0.78 | =0.05 | 0.73 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 5.69 | =0.008 | 0.14 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.25 | =1 | 0.19 | |
K4 | FW vs. AW | =0.004 | 1.07 | =0.003 | 1.09 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 14.45 | <0.001 | 0.18 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.001 | 1.24 | =0.002 | 1.17 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 15.31 | <0.001 | 0.27 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.22 | =0.43 | 0.42 | |
K5 | FW vs. AW | =0.002 | 1.23 | <0.001 | 1.56 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 19.83 | <0.001 | 0.37 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.72 | <0.001 | 1.97 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 28.67 | <0.001 | 0.40 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.21 | =0.81 | 0.31 | |
K6 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.57 | <0.001 | 1.46 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 30.09 | <0.001 | 0.62 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 2.67 | <0.001 | 2.86 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 29.27 | =0.001 | 0.59 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.20 | =1 | 0.25 | |
K7 | FW vs. AW | =1 | 0.08 | =0.13 | 0.59 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 0.77 | =0.47 | 0.02 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.84 | 0.30 | =0.09 | 0.64 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 4.55 | =0.02 | 0.08 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.22 | =0.82 | 0.30 | |
K8 | FW vs. AW | =0.11 | 0.61 | =1 | 0.02 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 3.13 | =0.06 | 0.12 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.20 | 0.53 | =0.25 | 0.50 | |
L | F (1.4, 18.2) = 1.75 * | =0.09 | 0.08 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.14 | =0.40 | 0.42 | |
K9 | FW vs. AW | =1 | 0.05 | =0.28 | 0.48 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 0.14 | =0.86 | 0.01 | FW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.09 | =0.87 | 0.29 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 1.15 | =0.33 | 0.02 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.14 | =1 | 0.03 | |
K10 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.23 | <0.001 | 2.01 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 21.73 | <0.001 | 0.39 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.84 | <0.001 | 2.55 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 54.85 | <0.001 | 0.56 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.23 | =1 | 0.03 | |
K11 | FW vs. AW | =0.18 | 0.54 | =0.01 | 0.94 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 6.30 | =0.005 | 0.17 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.01 | 0.93 | =0.01 | 0.90 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 4.02 | <0.001 | 0.25 | AW vs. VRAW | =0.55 | 0.37 | =1 | 0.11 | |
K12 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.32 | <0.001 | 1.97 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 49.43 | <0.001 | 0.39 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.87 | <0.001 | 2.25 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 49.43 | <0.001 | 0.58 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.07 | =1 | 0.003 |
Parameters | FW | AW | VRAW | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | p | ||
A1 (°) | R | −1.24 (3.44) | −6.34 | 4.92 | =0.43 | 8.83 (7.14) | −2.89 | 17.73 | =0.97 | 9.14 (7.67) | −3.63 | 24.60 | =0.97 |
L | −0.64 (4.30) | −8.95 | 6.54 | 8.85 (6.60) | 0.13 | 17.90 | 8.12 (7.23) | −1.07 | 18.59 | ||||
A2 (°) | R | −8.34 (2.68) | −13.27 | −5.29 | =0.22 | 2.0 (7.44) | −11.73 | 12.70 | =0.98 | −0.60 (7.26) | −10.37 | 11.83 | =0.98 |
L | −7.37 (2.67) | −13.73 | −2.13 | 2.03 (6.69) | −12.26 | 12.88 | 0.18 (6.96) | −14.36 | 7.72 | ||||
A3 (°) | R | 14.45 (2.47) | 9.17 | 19.54 | =0.007 | 16.85 (3.83) | 9.02 | 21.50 | =0.79 | 17.55 (4.48) | 9.46 | 28.69 | =0.79 |
L | 15.52 (2.43) | 12.60 | 22.06 | 17.06 (3.70) | 10.89 | 21.69 | 16.45 (3.72) | 11.09 | 21.03 | ||||
A4 (°) | R | −3.95 (5.41) | −13.27 | 7.36 | =0.80 | 4.52 (8.45) | −11.59 | 16.12 | =0.80 | 3.85 (6.16) | −9.1 | 11.89 | =0.91 |
L | −4.15 (5.06) | −10.10 | 7.46 | 4.72 (6.32) | −11.10 | 12.08 | 2.16 (6.43) | −12.26 | 8.92 | ||||
A5 (°) | R | −17.73 (4.78) | −27.26 | −7.10 | =0.99 | −3.02 (9.78) | −20.63 | 15.50 | =0.99 | −3.61 (7.53) | −15.48 | 9.98 | =0.44 |
L | −17.73 (6.38) | −27.90 | −3.29 | −4.54 (8.70) | −21.69 | 9.15 | −6.31 (8.35) | −22.46 | 3.47 | ||||
A6 (°) | R | 32.18 (3.48) | 25.10 | 37.27 | =0.28 | 20.29 (8.04) | 5.10 | 34.23 | =0.28 | 21.47 (6.86) | 7.74 | 32.60 | =0.26 |
L | 33.26 (4.71) | 25.52 | 41.89 | 22.07 (7.78) | 9.31 | 33.79 | 23.05 (6.73) | 14.23 | 36.35 | ||||
A7 (°) | R | 15.10 (4.27) | 8.28 | 23.18 | =0.22 | 14.91 (4.71) | 6.99 | 22.53 | =0.22 | 14.55 (5.74) | 6.66 | 25.41 | =0.87 |
L | 16.95 (4.18) | 11.51 | 25.84 | 15.08 (4.56) | 8.83 | 24.74 | 15.64 (6.99) | 4.69 | 27.77 | ||||
A8 (°) | R | 6.08 (1.29) | 3.35 | 8.30 | =0.30 | 7.79 (3.30) | −0.12 | 11.87 | =0.29 | 7.37 (2.71) | 2.84 | 11.43 | =0.19 |
L | 5.62 (1.36) | 2.83 | 7.69 | 6.54 (3.02) | −0.72 | 11.68 | 7.58 (2.96) | 2.05 | 12.80 | ||||
A9 (°) | R | −9.02 (3.94) | −14.88 | −1.10 | =0.15 | −7.11 (3.86) | −14.21 | −0.17 | =0.15 | −7.17 (4.04) | −14.09 | 0.24 | =0.19 |
L | −11.33 (4.05) | −20.14 | −5.44 | −8.54 (3.14) | −14.25 | −3.51 | −8.64 (4.45) | −15.87 | −1.03 |
Parameter | F Statistic | p | Effect Size () | Contrasts | p (R) | Effect Size (d) | p (L) | Effect Size (d) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A1 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.39 | =0.001 | 1.23 | ||||
R | F (1.42, 18.46) = 17.04 * | <0.001 | 0.38 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.40 | =0.008 | 0.98 | |
L | F (1.14, 18.46) = 9.10 * | <0.001 | 0.34 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.08 | =0.54 | 0.25 | |
A2 | FW vs. AW | =0.002 | 1.20 | =0.002 | 1.15 | ||||
R | F (1.36, 17.68) = 10.40 * | <0.001 | 0.35 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.013 | 0.94 | =0.007 | 1.00 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 11.61 | <0.001 | 0.35 | AW vs. VRAW | =0.11 | 0.63 | =1 | 0.25 | |
A3 | FW vs. AW | =0.34 | 0.45 | =0.77 | 0.32 | ||||
R | F (1.42, 18.46) = 2.16 * | =0.06 | 0.12 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.22 | 0.52 | =1.00 | 0.19 | |
L | F (1.1, 14.3) = 0.58 * | =0.36 | 0.14 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.23 | =0.30 | 0.47 | |
A4 | FW vs. AW | =0.03 | 0.78 | =0.004 | 1.07 | ||||
R | F (2, ) = 7.53 | =0.002 | 0.25 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.01 | 0.93 | =0.07 | 0.68 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 9.40 | <0.001 | 0.30 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.08 | =0.35 | 0.45 | |
A5 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.35 | <0.001 | 1.66 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 21.35 | <0.001 | 0.46 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.50 | =0.005 | 1.05 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 18.73 | <0.001 | 0.37 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.07 | =0.81 | 0.25 | |
A6 | FW vs. AW | <0.001 | 1.50 | <0.001 | 1.69 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 18.66 | <0.001 | 0.43 | FW vs. VRAW | <0.001 | 1.31 | =0.002 | 1.19 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 29.27 | <0.001 | 0.39 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.15 | =1 | 0.14 | |
A7 | FW vs. AW | =1 | 0.03 | =0.66 | 0.34 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 0.07 | =0.93 | 0.002 | FW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.09 | =1 | 0.17 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 0.70 | =0.50 | 0.02 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.08 | =1 | 0.12 | |
A8 | FW vs. AW | =0.16 | 0.56 | =0.91 | 0.28 | ||||
R | F (2, 26) = 2.71 | =0.08 | 0.07 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.18 | 0.55 | =0.14 | 0.59 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 2.87 | =0.74 | 0.09 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.14 | =0.48 | 0.39 | |
A9 | FW vs. AW | =0.57 | 0.36 | =0.12 | 0.61 | ||||
R | F (1.26, 16.38) = 1.87 | =0.17 | 0.05 | FW vs. VRAW | =0.47 | 0.40 | =0.16 | 0.56 | |
L | F (2, 26) = 4.14 | =0.03 | 0.10 | AW vs. VRAW | =1 | 0.03 | =1 | 0.03 |
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Hip Joint | Knee Joint | Ankle Joint |
---|---|---|
H1: flexion at heel strike. | K1: flexion at heel strike. | A1: dorsiflexion at heel strike. |
H2: max. flexion at load. response. | K2: max. flexion at load. response. | A2: max. plantar dorsiflex. at load. response. |
H3: max. extension in stance phase. | K3: max. extension in stance phase. | A3: max. dorsiflexion in stance phase. |
H4: flexion at toe-off. | K4: flexion at toe-off. | A4: dorsiflexion at toe-off. |
H5: max. flexion in swing phase. | K5: max. flexion in swing phase. | A5: max. dorsiflexion in swing phase. |
H6: total sagittal plane excursion. | K6: total sagittal plane excursion. | A6: total sagittal plane excursion. |
H7: total coronal plane excursion. | K7: total coronal plane excursion. | A7: total coronal plane excursion. |
H8: max. adduction in stance phase. | K8: max. adduction in stance phase. | A8: max. abduction in stance phase. |
H9: max. abduction in swing phase. | K9: max. abduction in swing phase. | A9: max. adduction in swing phase. |
H10: total transverse plane excursion. | K10: total transverse plane excursion. | |
H11: max. internal rot. in stance phase. | K11: max. internal rot. in stance phase. | |
H12: max. external rot. in swing. | K12: max. external rot. in swing phase. |
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Loureiro, M.; Elias, A.; Machado, F.; Bezerra, M.; Zimerer, C.; Mello, R.; Frizera, A. Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario. Sensors 2024, 24, 5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534
Loureiro M, Elias A, Machado F, Bezerra M, Zimerer C, Mello R, Frizera A. Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario. Sensors. 2024; 24(17):5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534
Chicago/Turabian StyleLoureiro, Matheus, Arlindo Elias, Fabiana Machado, Marcio Bezerra, Carla Zimerer, Ricardo Mello, and Anselmo Frizera. 2024. "Analysis of Gait Kinematics in Smart Walker-Assisted Locomotion in Immersive Virtual Reality Scenario" Sensors 24, no. 17: 5534. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175534