Quantification of the Uncertainty in Ultrasonic Wave Speed in Concrete: Application to Temperature Monitoring with Embedded Transducers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Fabrication of an Ultrasonic Transducer to Be Embedded in Concrete
2.2. Validation and Calibration of Piezoelectric Transducers
2.3. Concrete Specimens with Embedded Transducers
2.4. Conditioning Temperature and Monitoring System
2.5. Signal Processing for Travel Time Estimation
2.5.1. Determination of Onset Time
2.5.2. Determining the Relative Variation of Onset Time Using Cross-Correlation
2.6. Measures and Uncertainties
2.6.1. Uncertainty in Time
2.6.2. Uncertainty in Distance
2.6.3. Uncertainty in Absolute Velocity
2.6.4. Uncertainty in Relative Velocity
3. Results
3.1. Influence of Temperature on the Absolute Vp Value
3.2. Influence of Temperature on the Relative Wave Velocity Change
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Piezoelectric Transducers | PZT (Lead Zirconate Titanate) | PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride) | Quartz (SiO2) | AlN (Aluminum Nitride) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Material | Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | Quartz (silicon dioxide) | Aluminum nitride |
Design | Typically bare or with minimal protective coatings | Flexible polymer film | Rigid ceramic or crystal | Rigid ceramic |
Interference Mitigation | Basic shielding, more susceptible to capacitive noise | Susceptible to electromagnetic interference | High resistance to interference | Good resistance to interference, can be sensitive to temperature |
Calibration Requirement | Standard calibration, generally less complex | Requires careful calibration due to flexibility | Generally stable but needs calibration for precision | Calibration needed for specific applications, temperature-sensitive |
Frequency Range | kHz to several MHz, depending on the design | 1 kHz to 100 MHz, typically used in lower-frequency applications | 1 kHz to several MHz, depending on the crystal cut | 100 kHz to several MHz, depending on the crystal cut |
Sensitivity | High sensitivity, excellent for precise measurements | Lower sensitivity but flexible | High sensitivity, stable performance | High sensitivity and stable under varying conditions |
Environmental Suitability | Robust but contains lead and may need additional protection for harsh environments | Flexible and suitable for dynamic surfaces but less durable | Very stable and suitable for harsh environments | Stable and durable but can be sensitive to temperature changes |
Applications in SHM | Crack detection, delamination monitoring, and impact detection | Distributed strain sensing and vibration monitoring on flexible structures | Precision measurements and high-frequency applications | High-temperature environments and precision measurements |
Description of the Blocks | B30 | B40 | B60 |
---|---|---|---|
Geometry of the blocks (L × l × h) (cm) | 30 × 30 × 30 | 30 × 30 × 30 | 30 × 30 × 30 |
Distance between transducers (cm) | 10.01 | 9.98 | 10.03 |
Density (kg/m3) | 2401 | 2408 | 2436 |
Young’s Modulus E (MPa) | 35,719 | 37,321 | 43,279 |
Compressive strength (MPa) | 34.4 | 46.9 | 64.2 |
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Hariri, R.; Chaix, J.-F.; Shokouhi, P.; Garnier, V.; Saïdi-Muret, C.; Durand, O.; Abraham, O. Quantification of the Uncertainty in Ultrasonic Wave Speed in Concrete: Application to Temperature Monitoring with Embedded Transducers. Sensors 2024, 24, 5588. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175588
Hariri R, Chaix J-F, Shokouhi P, Garnier V, Saïdi-Muret C, Durand O, Abraham O. Quantification of the Uncertainty in Ultrasonic Wave Speed in Concrete: Application to Temperature Monitoring with Embedded Transducers. Sensors. 2024; 24(17):5588. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175588
Chicago/Turabian StyleHariri, Rouba, Jean-Francois Chaix, Parisa Shokouhi, Vincent Garnier, Cécile Saïdi-Muret, Olivier Durand, and Odile Abraham. 2024. "Quantification of the Uncertainty in Ultrasonic Wave Speed in Concrete: Application to Temperature Monitoring with Embedded Transducers" Sensors 24, no. 17: 5588. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175588