The Effect of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Food Intake, Anthropometric Indices, and Metabolic Markers among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: A Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Subjects
2.2. Socioeconomic Data Collection
2.3. Dietary Intake and Analysis
2.4. Anthropometric Measurement
2.5. Blood Samples Collection and Analysis
2.6. Blood Glucose and Lipid Profile Determination
2.7. Ethical Approval
2.8. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socioeconomic Characteristics
3.2. Dietary Intake
3.3. Anthropometric Indices of Participants
3.4. Lipid Profile, Glucose, and Blood Pressure of the Study Participants
3.5. Factors Associated with the Nutritional Status of Participants
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | PRE-M (n = 31) | p-Value | POST-M (n = 31) | p-Value | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | |||||||||
Age (year) | ||||||||||||
21–30 | 12 | 38.71 | 0.044 | - | - | 0.0001 | ||||||
31–40 | 15 | 48.39 | - | - | ||||||||
41–50 | 4 | 12.90 | 5 | 16.13 | ||||||||
>50 | - | - | 26 | 83.87 | ||||||||
Educational level | ||||||||||||
Illiterate | - | - | 0.001 | 1 | 3.23 | 0.0003 | ||||||
Secondary | 3 | 9.68 | 7 | 22.58 | ||||||||
Intermediate | 1 | 3.23 | 1 | 3.23 | ||||||||
Diploma | 4 | 12.90 | 10 | 32.25 | ||||||||
University | 20 | 64.51 | 11 | 35.48 | ||||||||
Postgraduate | 3 | 9.68 | 1 | 3.23 | ||||||||
Occupation | ||||||||||||
Student | 4 | 12.90 | 0.362 | - | - | 0.001 | ||||||
Government employee | 11 | 35.48 | 3 | 9.68 | ||||||||
Special job | 8 | 25.81 | 2 | 6.45 | ||||||||
Not working | 8 | 25.81 | 26 | 83.87 | ||||||||
Monthly income (SR) | ||||||||||||
Less than 5000 | 1 | 3.23 | 0.005 | 2 | 6.45 | 0.041 | ||||||
5000 to 10,000 | 15 | 48.38 | 7 | 22.58 | ||||||||
10,000 to 15,000 | 8 | 25.81 | 10 | 32.25 | ||||||||
More than 15,000 | 7 | 22.58 | 12 | 38.72 | ||||||||
Physical activity level | PRE-M (n = 31) | POST-M (n = 31) | ||||||||||
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||||||
n | % | p-Value | n | % | p-Value | n | % | p-Value | n | % | p-Value | |
Low | 19 | 61.29 | 0.004 | 21 | 67.75 | 0.048 | 30 | 96.77 | 0.001 | 28 | 90.32 | 0.007 |
Moderate | 5 | 16.13 | 10 | 32.25 | - | - | - | - | ||||
High | 7 | 22.58 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3.23 | 3 | 9.68 |
Parameter | PRE-M (n = 31) | t-Test | p-Value | POST-M (n = 31) | t-Test | p-Value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||
Macronutrients | ||||||||
Calories (kcal) | 1959.13 ± 27.18 | 1823.34 ± 22.65 | 2.95 ** | 0.006 | 2111.98 ± 21.18 | 1901.31 ± 17.36 | 4.68 ** | 0.005 |
Protein (g) | 77.87 ± 12.60 | 68.17 ± 16.55 | 1.81 | 0.081 | 83.47 ± 12.78 | 76.21 ± 11.32 | 1.92 | 0.065 |
Carbohydrates (g) | 196.22 ± 24.34 | 186.22 ± 17.83 | 1.34 | 0.176 | 211.77 ± 22.80 | 190.74 ± 19.52 | 1.56 | 0.129 |
Dietary fiber (g) | 7.53 ± 3.40 | 9.04 ± 5.51 | −1.42 | 0.167 | 10.35 ± 4.91 | 11.06 ± 5.14 | −0.73 | 0.473 |
Total fat (g) | 93.53 ± 18.33 | 82.75 ± 13.32 | 1.98 * | 0.050 | 94.56 ± 10.24 | 82.13 ± 9.06 | 2.29 * | 0.029 |
Saturated fat (g) | 26.55 ± 8.12 | 18.76 ± 6.91 | 7.59 ** | 0.003 | 29.87 ± 8.42 | 35.95 ± 9.86 | −1.80 * | 0.022 |
Unsaturated fat (g) | 60.45 ± 11.15 | 48.99 ± 8.17 | 3.86 ** | 0.001 | 59.12 ± 14.78 | 43.24 ± 13.90 | 5.89 ** | 0.001 |
Cholesterol (mg) | 260.81 ± 26.7 | 246.08 ± 19.2 | 0.356 * | 0.024 | 336.44 ± 27.91 | 225.67 ± 15.50 | 1.84 * | 0.016 |
Vitamins | ||||||||
Vit A µg (RE) | 238.96 ± 36.10 | 145.28 ± 15.40 | 1.37 * | 0.018 | 394.49 ± 74.20 | 305.42 ± 74.10 | 0.47 * | 0.041 |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.54 ± 0.43 | 0.34 ± 0.18 | 2.93 ** | 0.006 | 0.68 ± 0.73 | 0.36 ± 0.54 | 2.71 * | 0.011 |
Riboflavin(mg) | 0.71 ± 0.48 | 0.40 ± 0.20 | 3.08 ** | 0.004 | 1.18 ± 0.50 | 0.63 ± 0.45 | 2.00 * | 0.050 |
Niacin (mg) | 12.27 ± 4.00 | 11.68 ± 3.7 | 0.302 | 0.765 | 15.42 ± 11.30 | 10.69 ± 8.70 | 2.18 * | 0.037 |
Vit.B6 (mg) | 0.61 ± 0.57 | 0.55 ± 0.55 | 0.711 | 0.482 | 0.90 ± 1.11 | 0.63 ± 0.88 | 1.37 | 0.180 |
Vit.B12 (mcg) | 1.49 ± 1.30 | 1.01 ± 1.20 | 0.985 | 0.333 | 2.49 ± 0.53 | 2.45 ± 0.52 | 0.03 | 0.976 |
Vit..C (mcg) | 23.00 ± 8.70 | 17.11 ± 6.10 | 1.04 | 0.308 | 32.40 ± 4.70 | 30.31 ± 3.21 | 0.32 | 0.754 |
Vit.E- (mg) | 2.23 ± 2.40 | 1.10 ± 1.52 | 2.20 * | 0.035 | 2.05 ± 1.51 | 0.96 ± 0.94 | 4.61 ** | 0.001 |
Vit.D–(mcg) | 1.16 ± 1.20 | 0.51 ± 0.68 | 2.90 ** | 0.007 | 2.11 ± 0.98 | 0.65 ± 0.30 | 1.86 * | 0.037 |
Vit. K (mcg) | 24.87 ± 13.70 | 30.78 ± 16.80 | −0.265 | 0.793 | 25.11 ± 3.81 | 11.41 ± 1.94 | 2.08 * | 0.046 |
Folate (mcg) | 143.34 ± 11.10 | 81.68 ± 7.71 | 2.87 ** | 0.007 | 181.80 ± 29.40 | 95.26 ± 19.91 | 1.63 | 0.113 |
Minerals | ||||||||
Calcium (mg) | 408.05 ± 23.61 | 366.84 ± 18.74 | 0.902 * | 0.034 | 564.09 ± 31.90 | 388.45 ± 21.30 | 3.09 ** | 0.004 |
Copper (mg) | 0.68 ± 0.64 | 0.49 ± 0.36 | 1.69 | 0.101 | 0.75 ± 0.19 | 0.74 ± 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.973 |
Magnesium (mg) | 90.84 ± 8.81 | 79.23 ± 5.93 | 0.640 | 0.527 | 104.77 ± 55.90 | 80.49 ± 48.71 | 1.81 * | 0.048 |
Iron (mg) | 8.69 ± 4.70 | 7.76 ± 3.40 | 0.962 | 0.344 | 11.42 ± 7.10 | 9.22 ± 6.20 | 0.72 | 0.475 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 326.99 ± 26.72 | 295.50 ± 19.10 | 0.480 | 0.635 | 383.19 ± 25.42 | 267.64 ± 17.33 | 2.95 ** | 0.006 |
Potassium (mg) | 481.43 ± 86.50 | 322.14 ± 57.91 | 0.836 * | 0.013 | 1459.59 ± 93.51 | 1366.69 ± 47.81 | 0.55 | 0.588 |
Selenium (mg) | 40.79 ± 7.91 | 31.95 ± 3.73 | 1.03 | 0.311 | 41.22 ± 6.22 | 27.66 ± 2.80 | 2.59 * | 0.014 |
Sodium (mg) | 1834.06 ± 13.80 | 2482.38 ± 15.31 | −1.81 * | 0.018 | 2773.80 ± 14.83 | 2299.28 ± 19.51 | 0.44 * | 0.016 |
Zinc (mg) | 3.38 ± 2.93 | 2.62 ± 2.10 | 1.17 | 0.251 | 5.15 ± 3.73 | 3.66 ± 3.12 | 1.06 | 0.298 |
Indices | PRE-M (n = 31) | p-Value | POST-M (n = 31) | p-Value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |||
BMI (kg/m²) | ||||||||||
Underweight (<18.5) ** | 2 | 6.45 | 2 | 6.45 | 0.001 | - | - | - | - | 0.012 |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 15 | 48.39 | 20 | 64.52 | 6 | 19.35 | 7 | 22.58 | ||
Overweight (25–29.9) | 12 | 38.71 | 7 | 22.58 | 15 | 48.39 | 17 | 54.84 | ||
Obesity (≥30) | 2 | 6.45 | 2 | 6.45 | 10 | 32.26 | 7 | 22.58 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) | ||||||||||
Underweight (≤0.41) | 8 | 25.81 | 10 | 32.26 | <0.001 | 2 | 6.45 | 2 | 6.45 | 0.005 |
Normal (0.42–0.48) | 16 | 51.61 | 16 | 51.61 | 2 | 6.45 | 3 | 9.68 | ||
Overweight (0.49–0.53) | 5 | 16.12 | 4 | 12.90 | 8 | 25.81 | 15 | 48.39 | ||
Very overweight (0.54–0.57) | 1 | 3.23 | - | - | 6 | 19.35 | 4 | 12.90 | ||
Obesity (≥0.58) | 1 | 3.23 | 1 | 3.23 | 13 | 41.94 | 7 | 22.58 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) | ||||||||||
Low (≤0.80) | 28 | 90.32 | 30 | 96.77 | <0.001 | 13 | 41.94 | 18 | 58.07 | 0.008 |
Normal (0.81–0.85) | 2 | 6.45 | 1 | 3.23 | 9 | 29.03 | 7 | 22.58 | ||
High (≥0.86) | 1 | 3.23 | - | - | 9 | 29.03 | 6 | 19.35 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Body fat % (BFP, Kg) | ||||||||||
Low (<21) | 5 | 16.12 | 5 | 16.12 | <0.001 | - | - | - | - | 0.125 |
Normal (21–35.5) | 17 | 54.85 | 20 | 64.52 | 7 | 22.58 | 7 | 22.58 | ||
High (35.6–40) | 6 | 19.35 | 3 | 9.68 | 10 | 32.26 | 11 | 35.48 | ||
Very high (>40) | 3 | 9.68 | 3 | 9.68 | 14 | 45.16 | 13 | 41.94 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Fat Mass (FM, kg) | ||||||||||
Low (<15) | 1 | 3.23 | 1 | 3.23 | 0.001 | - | - | - | - | <0.001 |
Normal (15–26.8) | 16 | 51.61 | 19 | 61.29 | 4 | 12.90 | 5 | 16.13 | ||
High (>26.8) | 14 | 45.16 | 11 | 35.48 | 27 | 87.10 | 26 | 83.87 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 |
Parameter | PRE-M (n = 31) | p-Value | POST-M (n = 31) | p-Value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |||
LDL-C (mmol/L) | ||||||||||
Low (<3.9) ** | 30 | 96.8 | 31 | 100.0 | 0.003 | 23 | 74.2 | 21 | 67.7 | <0.001 |
Normal (3.9–4.9) | 1 | 3.2 | - | - | 8 | 25.8 | 9 | 29.0 | ||
High (>4.9) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 3.2 | ||
HDL-C (mmol/L) | ||||||||||
Low (<0.83) | - | - | 1 | 3.2 | 1 | 3.28 | - | - | <0.001 | |
Normal (0.83–2.49) | 31 | 100.0 | 30 | 96.8 | <0.001 | 30 | 96.8 | 30 | 96.8 | |
High (>2.49) | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 3.3 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||||||
Low (<2) | 25 | 80.6 | - | - | 0.017 | - | - | 2 | 6. 5 | <0.001 |
Normal (2.0–5.2) | - | - | 24 | 77.4 | 12 | 38.7 | 9 | 29.0 | ||
High (>5.2) | 6 | 19.4 | 7 | 22.6 | 19 | 613 | 20 | 64.5 | ||
Triglycerides (mmol/L) | ||||||||||
Low (<0.34) | 1 | 3.2 | 3 | 9. 7 | <0.001 | - | - | 2 | 6. 5 | <0.001 |
Normal (0.34–2.28) | 30 | 96.8 | 28 | 90.3 | 31 | 100.0 | 29 | 93.6 | ||
High (>2.28) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Fasting blood glucose (mmol/L) | ||||||||||
Low (<3.9) | 4 | 12.9 | 5 | 16.1 | <0.001 | 3 | 9.7 | 3 | 9. 7 | 0.004 |
Normal (3.9–6.1) | 26 | 83.9 | 26 | 83.9 | 13 | 41.9 | 20 | 64.5 | ||
High (>6.1) | 1 | 3.2 | - | - | 15 | 48.4 | 8 | 25.8 | ||
Total | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | 31 | 100.0 | ||
Blood pressure (Systolic/Diastolic, mm Hg) | ||||||||||
Normal (120/80) | 24 | 77.4 | 23 | 74.2 | 0.049 | 6 | 19.4 | 10 | 32.3 | 0.021 |
Elevated (120–129/<80) | 3 | 9.7 | 7 | 22.6 | 3 | 9.7 | 4 | 12.9 | ||
Hypertension-I (130–139/80–89) | 4 | 12.9 | 1 | 3.2 | 8 | 25.8 | 5 | 16.1 | ||
Hypertension-II (≥140/≥90) | - | - | - | - | 14 | 45.2 | 12 | 38.7 |
Dependent Variables/Independent Variables | PRE-M (n = 31) | POST-M (n = 31) | ||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BMI (kg/m2) | BFP | BMI (kg/m2) | BFP | |||||||||||||
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||||||
β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | |
Socioeconomic factors | ||||||||||||||||
Age | 0.03 | 0.990 | 0.15 | 0.558 | 0.04 | 0.641 | 0.06 | 0.952 | 0.14 ** | 0.007 | 0.13 * | 0.024 | 0.17 ** | 0.009 | 0.29 * | 0.017 |
Education level | −0.10 | 0.781 | −0.27 | 0.529 | −0.08 | 0.591 | −0.16 | 0.310 | −0.09 | 0.755 | −0.17 | 0.482 | −0.24 | 0.166 | −0.22 | 0.153 |
Occupation | −0.31 * | 0.038 | −0.26 | 0.464 | −0.22 * | 0.050 | −0.019 | 0.894 | −0.02 | 0.898 | −0.02 | 0.901 | −0.03 | 0.973 | −0.02 | 0.837 |
Monthly income | 0.18 * | 0.042 | 0.12 | 0.648 | 0.13 | 0.193 | 0.16 | 0.127 | 0.21 | 0.276 | 0.01 | 0.972 | 0.33 ** | 0.007 | 0.29 ** | 0.001 |
Physical activity | ||||||||||||||||
High | −0.16 | 0.564 | −0.37 | 0.192 | −0.02 | 0.817 | −0.09 | 0.438 | −0.06 | 0.820 | −0.02 | 0.914 | −0.12 | 0.465 | −0.11 | 0.435 |
Moderate | −0.46 | 0.089 | −0.62 * | 0.030 | −0.05 | 0.629 | −0.08 | 0.477 | −0.05 | 0.904 | −0.03 | 0.920 | −0.38 | 0.112 | −0.37 * | 0.050 |
Low | −0.16 | 0.149 | −0.21 * | 0.031 | −0.04 | 0.588 | −0.03 | 0.661 | −0.88 | 0.140 | −0.69 | 0.150 | −0.57* | 0.018 | −0.48 | 0.125 |
Dependent Variables/Independent Variables | PRE-M (n = 31) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Calories | Dietary Cholesterol | Vitamin D | ||||||||||
R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | R1 | R2 | |||||||
β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | β | p-Value | |
Socioeconomic factors | ||||||||||||
Age | −0.03 | 0.630 | −0.15 * | 0.012 | −0.68 | 0.120 | −0.28 * | 0.020 | −0.54 | 0.150 | −0.34 * | 0.023 |
Education level | −0.13 * | 0.039 | −0.19 * | 0.050 | −0.04 | 0.267 | −0.19 | 0.251 | 0.18 * | 0.040 | 0.21 * | 0.031 |
Occupation | 0.01 | 0.494 | 0.01 | 0.544 | 0.20 | 0.967 | 0.01 | 0.824 | 0.04 | 0.986 | 0.03 | 0.947 |
Monthly income | 0.14 ** | 0.004 | 0.12 * | 0.016 | 0.01 | 0.564 | 0.01 | 0.369 | 0.19 | 0.256 | 0.04 | 0.990 |
Physical activity | ||||||||||||
High | −0.13 * | 0.050 | −0.24 * | 0.030 | −0.44 | 0.965 | −0.01 * | 0.027 | −0.30 | 0.360 | −0.10 | 0.863 |
Moderate | −0.23 * | 0.048 | −0.34 * | 0.050 | −0.02 | 0.440 | −0.03 | 0.382 | −0.19 | 0.610 | −0.11 | 0.875 |
Low | −0.02 | 0.309 | −0.03 | 0.234 | −0.04 * | 0.017 | −0.03 | 0.461 | −0.28 | 0.463 | −0.47 | 0.478 |
Dependent variables/Independent variables | POST-M (n = 31) | |||||||||||
Calories | Dietary cholesterol Socioeconomic factors | Vitamin D | ||||||||||
Age | −0.04 | 0.586 | −0.02 | 0.829 | −0.01 | 0.193 | −0.08 | 0.976 | −0.51 | 0.301 | −0.14 | 0.249 |
Education level | −0.16 * | 0.038 | −0.14 * | 0.035 | −0.01 | 0.331 | −0.01 | 0.655 | 0.04 | 0.681 | 0.04 | 0.897 |
Occupation | 0.01 | 0.508 | 0.03 | 0.436 | 0.01 | 0.402 | 0.12 | 0.789 | 0.03 | 0.589 | 0.11 | 0.562 |
Monthly income | 0.14 | 0.204 | 0.03 * | 0.027 | 0.11 | 0.975 | 0.02 | 0.498 | 0.04 | 0.941 | 0.01 | 0.477 |
Physical activity | ||||||||||||
High | −0.04 | 0.832 | −0.01 | 0.473 | −0.22 * | 0.019 | −0.01 | 0.304 | −0.09 | 0.134 | −0.18 | 0.458 |
Moderate | −0.14 * | 0.032 | −0.02 | 0.439 | −0.02 | 0.138 | −0.03 | 0.359 | 0.41 ** | 0.002 | 0.22 * | 0.011 |
Low | −0.06 | 0.800 | −0.01 | 0.589 | −0.02 | 0.163 | −0.05 | 0.144 | −0.07 | 0.952 | −0.32 | 0.493 |
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AlZunaidy, N.A.; Al-Khalifa, A.S.; Alhussain, M.H.; Mohammed, M.A.; Alfheeaid, H.A.; Althwab, S.A.; Faris, M.E. The Effect of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Food Intake, Anthropometric Indices, and Metabolic Markers among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: A Cross-Sectional Study. Medicina 2023, 59, 1191. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59071191
AlZunaidy NA, Al-Khalifa AS, Alhussain MH, Mohammed MA, Alfheeaid HA, Althwab SA, Faris ME. The Effect of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Food Intake, Anthropometric Indices, and Metabolic Markers among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: A Cross-Sectional Study. Medicina. 2023; 59(7):1191. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59071191
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlZunaidy, Nada A., Abdulrahman S. Al-Khalifa, Maha H. Alhussain, Mohammed A. Mohammed, Hani A. Alfheeaid, Sami A. Althwab, and MoezAlIslam E. Faris. 2023. "The Effect of Ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Food Intake, Anthropometric Indices, and Metabolic Markers among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: A Cross-Sectional Study" Medicina 59, no. 7: 1191. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59071191