Congener Profiles and Source-Wise Phase Partitioning Analysis of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs in Gyeonggi-Do Ambient Air, South Korea
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
Sampling Event | Suwon | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SW1 | SW2 | SW3 | SW4 | SW5 | SW6 | SW7 | SW8 | SW9 | SW10 | SW11 | SW12 | SW13 | SW14 | SW15 | SW16 | SW17 | SW18 | SW19 | |||||||||||
Date (Year: 2010) | 2.03 | 2.24 | 3.18 | 3.31 | 4.07 | 4.23 | 5.07 | 5.14 | 5.28 | 6.11 | 6.28 | 7.12 | 7.26 | 8.16 | 9.06 | 9.27 | 10.13 | 11.01 | 11.19 | ||||||||||
Sampling Event | Ansan | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
AS1 | AS2 | AS3 | AS4 | AS5 | AS6 | AS7 | AS8 | AS9 | AS10 | AS11 | |||||||||||||||||||
Date (Year: 2010) | 2.24 | 3.18 | 3.31 | 4.16 | 4.30 | 5.14 | 5.28 | 6.11 | 6.28 | 7.12 | 7.26 |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Concentration of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs in the Ambient Air
PCBs | |||||
City | No. b | No. c | Mean d pg/m3 | ||
Suwon | 19 | 180 | Σ PCB = 233.60 | Gas = 221.41 | |
19 | 7 | ΣICES-PCB = 34.08 | Gas = 32.06 | ||
19 | 12 | Σdl-PCB = 2.28 (0.006 pg-TEQ/m3) | Gas = 2.00 (0.004 pg-TEQ/m3) | ||
Ansan | 11 | 180 | ΣPCB = 274.15 | Gas = 251.77 | |
11 | 7 | Σ ICES-PCB = 36.45 | Gas = 33.70 | ||
11 | 12 | Σdl-PCB = 4.24 (0.023 pg-TEQ/m3) | Gas = 3.66 (0.016 pg-TEQ/m3) | ||
Seoul | 14 | 41 | ΣPCB = 130.41 | ||
Ansung | 14 | 41 | ΣPCB = 39.65 | ||
30 Cities a | 30 | 202 | ΣPCB = 155.77 | ||
58 Cities a | 58 | 202 | ΣPCB = 315.02 | ||
Nationwide | 34 | - | ΣPCB = 100.00 | ||
Nationwide | 69 | - | ΣPCB = 260.00 | ||
Nationwide | 74 | - | ΣPCB = 240.00 | ||
20 Cities | 20 | 202 | ΣPCB = 1,512.58 | ||
Taichung | 1 | 202 | ΣPCB = 316.51 | ||
PCDDs/Fs | |||||
City | No. b | No. c | Mean d I TEQ pg/m3 | ||
Suwon | 19 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.086 | Σ PCDDs/Fs (gas) = 0.022 | |
Ansan | 11 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.357 | Σ PCDDs/Fs (gas) = 0.109 | |
Nationwide | 48 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.160 | ||
Nationwide | 48 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.077 | ||
Nationwide | 48 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.074 | ||
Shanghai | 7 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.289 | ||
Shanghiai | 7 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.497 | ||
Beijing e | 12 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.268 | ||
Hangzohou | 24 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.295 | ||
Guangzhou | 6 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.769 | ||
Kaohsiung | 40 | 17 | ΣPCDDs/Fs = 0.074 |
3.2. Profile Congeners of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs and in the Ambient Air
3.3. Gas/Particle Partitioning of PCDDs/Fs and dl-PCBs in the Atmosphere
Compound | Sampling Site | Slop (m) | Intercept (b) | R2 | Level of Significance | Sampling Site | Slop (m) | Intercept (b) | R2 | Level of Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCDDs/Fs | SW (all temp.) | −0.54 | −3.97 | 0.48 | <0.001 | AS (all temp.) | −0.94 | −5.93 | 0.83 | <0.001 |
SW (temp. <10 °C) | −0.32 | −2.85 | 0.20 | <0.001 | AS (temp. < 10 °C) | −0.82 | −5.38 | 0.76 | <0.001 | |
SW (10 °C < temp. < 20 °C) | −0.75 | −5.17 | 0.62 | <0.001 | AS (10 °C < temp. < 20 °C) | −1.16 | −7.13 | 0.85 | <0.001 | |
SW (temp. > 20 °C) | −0.86 | −5.24 | 0.75 | <0.001 | AS (temp. > 20 °C) | −1.09 | −6.15 | 0.84 | <0.001 | |
dl-PCBs | SW (all temp.) | −0.76 | −5.68 | 0.72 | <0.001 | AS (all temp.) | −0.80 | −5.96 | 0.78 | <0.001 |
SW (temp. < 10 °C) | −0.84 | −5.97 | 0.74 | <0.001 | AS (temp. < 10 °C) | −0.88 | −6.25 | 0.93 | <0.001 | |
SW (10 °C < temp. < 20 °C) | −0.70 | −5.50 | 0.56 | <0.001 | AS (10 °C < temp. < 20 °C) | −0.99 | −6.79 | 0.83 | <0.001 | |
SW (temp. > 20 °C) | −0.66 | −5.34 | 0.51 | <0.001 | AS (temp. > 20 °C) | −0.56 | −5.17 | 0.43 | <0.001 |
3.4. PCDDs/Fs and PCBs Profiles in Emission Sources and Ambient Air
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Schmidt, H.; Schultz, G. Einwirkung von Fiinffach-Chlorphosphor auf das y- diphenol. Justus Liebigs Ann. der Chem. 1881, 207, 320–347. [Google Scholar]
- Hsu, Y.K.; Holsen, T.M.; Hopke, P.K. Comparison of hybrid receptor models to locate PCB sources in Chicago. Atmos. Environ. 2003, 37, 545–562. [Google Scholar]
- Yeo, H.G.; Choi, M.; Chun, M.Y.; Sunwoo, Y. Gas/particle concentrations and partitioning of PCBs in the atmosphere of Korea. Atmos. Environ. 2003, 37, 3561–3570. [Google Scholar]
- Olie, K. Chlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and chlorodibenzofurans are trace components of fly ash and flue gas of some municipal incinerators in the Netherlands. Chemosphere 1977, 6, 455–459. [Google Scholar]
- Oh, J.-E.; Choi, S.-D.; Lee, S.-J.; Chang, Y.-S. Influence of a municipal solid waste incinerator on ambient air and soil PCDD/Fs levels. Chemosphere 2006, 64, 579–587. [Google Scholar]
- Shin, S.K.; Jin, G.Z.; Kim, W.I.; Kim, B.H.; Hwang, S.M.; Hong, J.P.; Park, J.S. Nationwide monitoring of atmospheric PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs in South Korea. Chemosphere 2011, 83, 1339–1344. [Google Scholar]
- Brunciak, P.A.; Dachs, J.; Gigliotti, C.L.; Nelson, E.D.; Eisenreich, S.J. Atmospheric polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations and apparent degradation in coastal New Jersey. Atmos. Environ. 2001, 35, 3325–3339. [Google Scholar]
- Yi, S.M.; Reddy Pagilla, S.; Seo, Y.C.; Mills, W.J.; Holsen, T.M. Emissions of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from sludge drying beds to the atmosphere in Chicago. Chemosphere 2008, 71, 1028–1034. [Google Scholar]
- Pentyala, S.N.; Rebecchi, M.; Mishra, S.; Rahman, A.; Stefan, R.; Rebecchi, J.; Kodavanti, P.R.S. Polychlorinated biphenyls: In situ bioremediation from the environment. Environ. Pollut. Ecol. Hum. Hlth 2011, 249–262. [Google Scholar]
- Falconer, R.L.; Harner, T. Comparison of the octanol-air partition coefficient and liquid-phase vapor pressure as descriptors for particle/gas partitioning using laboratory and field data for PCBs and PCNs. Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34, 4043–4046. [Google Scholar]
- Chi, K.H.; Hsu, S.C.; Wang, S.H.; Chang, M.B. Increases in ambient PCDD/F and PCB concentrations in Northern Taiwan during an Asian dust storm episode. Sci. Total Environ. 2008, 401, 100–108. [Google Scholar]
- Chuang, S.-C.; Chen, S.-J.; Huang, K.-L.; Wu, E.M.-Y.; Chang-Chien, G.-P.; Wang, L.-C. Gas/particle partitioning of dioxins in exhaust gases from automobiles. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2010, 10, 489–496. [Google Scholar]
- Pankow, J.F. An absorption model of gas/particle partitioning of organic compounds in the atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 1994, 28, 185–188. [Google Scholar]
- Heo, J.; Lee, G. Field-measured uptake rates of PCDDs/Fs and dl-PCBs using PUF-disk passive air samplers in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Sci. Total Environ. 2014, 491–492. [Google Scholar]
- Yeo, H.G.; Choi, M.; Chun, M.Y.; Kim, T.W.; Cho, K.C.; Sunwoo, Y. Concentration characteristics of atmospheric PCBs for urban and rural area, Korea. Sci. Total Environ. 2004, 324, 261–270. [Google Scholar]
- Hogarh, J.N.; Seike, N.; Kobara, Y.; Habib, A.; Nam, J.J.; Lee, J.S.; Li, Q.; Liu, X.; Li, J.; Zhang, G. Passive air monitoring of PCBs and PCNs across East Asia: A comprehensive congener evaluation for source characterization. Chemosphere 2011, 86, 718–726. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of the Environment of JAPAN (MOE). Environmental Monitoring Report on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Japan, 2002–2004. Available online: http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/pops/rep2002-2004.pdf (accessed on 21 October 2014).
- Li, H.; Feng, J.; Sheng, G.; Lü, S.; Fu, J.; Peng, P.a.; Man, R. The PCDD/F and PBDD/F pollution in the ambient atmosphere of Shanghai, China. Chemosphere 2008, 70, 576–583. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Y.; Jiang, G.; Wang, Y.; Cai, Z.; Zhang, Q. Concentrations, profiles and gas-particle partitioning of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the ambient air of Beijing, China. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42, 2037–2047. [Google Scholar]
- Xu, M.-X.; Yan, J.-H.; Lu, S.-Y.; Li, X.-D.; Chen, T.; Ni, M.-J.; Dai, H.-F.; Wang, F.; Cen, K.-F. Concentrations, profiles, and sources of atmospheric PCDD/Fs near a municipal solid waste incinerator in Eastern China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 1023–1029. [Google Scholar]
- Yu, L.; Mai, B.; Meng, X.; Bi, X.; Sheng, G.; Fu, J.; Peng, P. Particle-bound polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the atmosphere of Guangzhou, China. Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40, 96–108. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, J.B.; Chang-Chien, G.-P.; Lin, W.-Y.; Yeh, J.-H.; Hung, C.-H. A seasonality study of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in ambient air in Kaohsiung (Taiwan) clustered with metallurgical industries. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 162, 103–110. [Google Scholar]
- Abad, E.; Martinez, K.; Gustems, L.; Gómez, R.; Guinart, X.; Hernández, I.; Rivera, J. Ten years measuring PCDDs/PCDFs in ambient air in Catalonia (Spain). Chemosphere 2007, 67, 1709–1714. [Google Scholar]
- Caserini, S.; Cernuschi, S.; Giugliano, M.; Grosso, M.; Lonati, G.; Mattaini, P. Air and soil dioxin levels at three sites in Italy in proximity to MSW incineration plants. Chemosphere 2004, 54, 1279–1288. [Google Scholar]
- Coutinho, M.; Pereira, M.; Borrego, C. Monitoring of ambient air PCDD/F levels in Portugal. Chemosphere 2007, 67, 1715–1721. [Google Scholar]
- Venier, M.; Ferrario, J.; Hites, R.A. Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the atmosphere around the Great Lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 1036–1041. [Google Scholar]
- Lohmann, R.; Jones, K.C. Dioxins and furans in air and deposition: A review of levels, behaviour and processes. Sci. Total Environ. 1998, 219, 53–81. [Google Scholar]
- Jaward, F.M.; Zhang, G.; Nam, J.J.; Sweetman, A.J.; Obbard, J.P.; Kobara, Y.; Jones, K.C. Passive air sampling of polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine compounds, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers across Asia. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 8638–8645. [Google Scholar]
- Hung, H.; Chi Lee, S.; Wania, F.; Blanchard, P.; Brice, K. Measuring and simulating atmospheric concentration trends of polychlorinated biphenyls in the Northern Hemisphere. Atmos. Environ. 2005, 39, 6502–6512. [Google Scholar]
- Simcik, M.F.; Franz, T.P.; Zhang, H.; Eisenreich, S.J. Gas-particle partitioning of PCBs and PAHs in the Chicago urban and adjacent coastal atmosphere: States of equilibrium. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32, 251–257. [Google Scholar]
- Ogura, I.; Masunaga, S.; Nakanishi, J. Quantitative source identification of dioxin-like PCBs in Yokohama, Japan, by temperature dependence of their atmospheric concentrations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 3279–3285. [Google Scholar]
- Raun, L.H.; Correa, O.; Rifai, H.; Suarez, M.; Koenig, L. Statistical investigation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the ambient air of Houston, Texas. Chemosphere 2005, 60, 973–989. [Google Scholar]
- Oh, J.-E.; Choi, J.-S.; Chang, Y.-S. Gas/particle partitioning of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in atmosphere; Evaluation of predicting models. Atmos. Environ. 2001, 35, 4125–4134. [Google Scholar]
- Alcock, R.E.; Sweetman, A.J.; Jones, K.C. A congener-specific PCDD/F emissions inventory for the UK: Do current estimates account for the measured atmospheric burden? Chemosphere 2001, 43, 183–194. [Google Scholar]
- Colombo, A.; Benfenati, E.; Bugatti, S.G.; Lodi, M.; Mariani, A.; Musmeci, L.; Rotella, G.; Senese, V.; Ziemacki, G.; Fanelli, R. PCDD/Fs and PCBs in ambient air in a highly industrialized city in Northern Italy. Chemosphere 2012, 90, 2352–2357. [Google Scholar]
- Li, Y.; Wang, P.; Ding, L.; Li, X.; Wang, T.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, H.; Jiang, G.; Wei, F. Atmospheric distribution of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls around a steel plant area, Northeast China. Chemosphere 2010, 79, 253–258. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, D.; Lehmler, H.-J.; Martinez, A.; Wang, K.; Hornbuckle, K.C. Atmospheric PCB congeners across Chicago. Atmos. Environ. 2010, 44, 1550–1557. [Google Scholar]
- Choi, S.-D.; Baek, S.-Y.; Chang, Y.-S.; Wania, F.; Ikonomou, M.G.; Yoon, Y.-J.; Park, B.-K.; Hong, S. Passive air sampling of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides at the Korean Arctic and Antarctic research stations: Implications for long-range transport and local pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 7125–7131. [Google Scholar]
- Du, S.; Wall, S.J.; Cacia, D.; Rodenburg, L.A. Passive air sampling for polychlorinated biphenyls in the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 1287–1292. [Google Scholar]
- Hu, D.; Martinez, A.; Hornbuckle, K.C. Discovery of non-aroclor PCB (3, 3′-dichlorobiphenyl) in Chicago air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42, 7873–7877. [Google Scholar]
- Basu, I.; Arnold, K.A.; Venier, M.; Hites, R.A. Partial pressures of PCB-11 in air from several Great Lakes sites. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 6488–6492. [Google Scholar]
- Sıddık Cindoruk, S.; Tasdemir, Y. Characterization of gas/particle concentrations and partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) measured in an urban site of Turkey. Environ. Poll. 2007, 148, 325–333. [Google Scholar]
- Schulz, T.J. Comparison of PCBs in East Chicago, Indiana and Columbus Junction, Iowa in Indoor and Outdoor Air. Master Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA, January 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, R.G.; Jones, K.C. Gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric PCDD/Fs: Measurements and observations on modeling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1999, 33, 3596–3604. [Google Scholar]
- Bidleman, T.F. Atmospheric processes: Wet and dry deposition of organic compounds are controlled by their vapor-particle partitioning. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1988, 22, 361–367. [Google Scholar]
- Finizio, A.; Mackay, D.; Bidleman, T.; Harner, T. Octanol-air partition coefficient as a predictor of partitioning of semi-volatile organic chemicals to aerosols. Atmos. Environ. 1997, 31, 2289–2296. [Google Scholar]
- Yamasaki, H.; Kuwata, K.; Miyamoto, H. Effects of ambient temperature on aspects of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1982, 16, 189–194. [Google Scholar]
- Goss, K.-U.; Schwarzenbach, R.P. Gas/solid and gas/liquid partitioning of organic compounds: Critical evaluation of the interpretation of equilibrium constants. Environ. Sci. Technol 1998, 32, 2025–2032. [Google Scholar]
- Eitzer, B.D.; Hites, R.A. Vapor pressures of chlorinated dioxins and dibenzofurans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1988, 22, 1362–1364. [Google Scholar]
- Falconer, R.L.; Bidleman, T.F. Vapor pressures and predicted particle/gas distributions of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners as functions of temperature and ortho-chlorine substitution. Atmos. Environ. 1994, 28, 547–554. [Google Scholar]
- Lohmann, R.; Lee, R.G.; Green, N.J.; Jones, K.C. Gas-particle partitioning of PCDD/Fs in daily air samples. Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34, 2529–2537. [Google Scholar]
- Choi, K.-I.; Lee, S.-H.; Lee, D.-H. Emissions of PCDDs/DFs and dioxin-like PCBs from small waste incinerators in Korea. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42, 940–948. [Google Scholar]
- You, J. Emission Characteristics and Emission Factors of PCDDs, PCDFs, and Co-Planar PCBs from Industrial Facilities. Ph.D. Thesis, Graduated School, The University of Seoul, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, K.H. Source and emission of unintended persistent organic pollutants. Korean Ind. Chem. News 2010, 13, 18–30. [Google Scholar]
- Cindoruk, S.S.; Esen, F.; Tasdemir, Y. Concentration and gas/particle partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) at an industrial site at Bursa, Turkey. Atmos. Res. 2007, 85, 338–350. [Google Scholar]
- Mandalakis, M.; Tsapakis, M.; Tsoga, A.; Stephanou, E.G. Gas-particle concentrations and distribution of aliphatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, PCBs and PCDD/Fs in the atmosphere of Athens (Greece). Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 4023–4035. [Google Scholar]
- Breivik, K.; Sweetman, A.; Pacyna, J.M.; Jones, K.C. Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners—A mass balance approach: 1. Global production and consumption. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 290, 181–198. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, K.S.; Hirai, Y.; Kato, M.; Urano, K.; Masunaga, S. Detailed PCB congener patterns in incinerator flue gas and commercial PCB formulations (Kanechlor). Chemosphere 2004, 55, 539–553. [Google Scholar]
- Frame, G.M.; Wagner, R.E.; Carnahan, J.C.; Brown, J.F.; May, R.J.; Smullen, L.A.; Bedard, D.L. Comprehensive, quantitative, congener-specific analyses of eight Aroclors and complete PCB congener assignments on DB-1 capillary GC columns. Chemosphere 1996, 33, 603–623. [Google Scholar]
- Breivik, K.; Sweetman, A.; Pacyna, J.M.; Jones, K.C. Towards a global historical emission inventory for selected PCB congeners—A mass balance approach: 2. Emissions. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 290, 199–224. [Google Scholar]
- Tatsukawa, R. PCB Pollution of the Japanese Environment; Kodansha Ltd.: Tokyo, Japan; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1976; pp. 147–179. [Google Scholar]
- TAMS Consultants, Inc. Phase 1. Gradient Interim Characterization and Evaluation for the Hudson River PCB Reassessment RI/FS; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 1991. [Google Scholar]
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Heo, J.; Kim, D.; Lee, G. Congener Profiles and Source-Wise Phase Partitioning Analysis of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs in Gyeonggi-Do Ambient Air, South Korea. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 11065-11080. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph111111065
Heo J, Kim D, Lee G. Congener Profiles and Source-Wise Phase Partitioning Analysis of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs in Gyeonggi-Do Ambient Air, South Korea. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014; 11(11):11065-11080. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph111111065
Chicago/Turabian StyleHeo, Jongwon, Donggi Kim, and Gangwoong Lee. 2014. "Congener Profiles and Source-Wise Phase Partitioning Analysis of PCDDs/Fs and PCBs in Gyeonggi-Do Ambient Air, South Korea" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 11, no. 11: 11065-11080. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph111111065