Changes in Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Levels Before and After the Phthalate Contamination Event and Identification of Exposure Sources in a Cohort of Taiwanese Children
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Information Collection
2.2. Questionnaire on Environmental Exposures
2.3. Urine Sample Preparation and Measurement
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Basic Demographics of the Study Population
3.2. Comparison of Metabolite Levels Before and After the DEHP Food Contamination Event
3.3. Environmental Risk Factors for Higher Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Levels
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
DEP | Diethylphthalate |
DBP | Dibutyl phthalate |
BBzP | Butylbenzyl phthalate |
DEHP | di(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate |
MEP | Monoethyl phthalate |
MBP | Monobutyl phthalate |
MBzP | Monobenzyl phthalate |
5OH-MEHP | Mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl)phthalate |
UPLC-MS/MS | Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry |
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Characteristics | % | GM (s.e.) MEP (µg/g Creatinine) | GM (s.e.) MBP (µg/g Creatinine) | GM (s.e.) MBzP (µg/g Creatinine) | GM (s.e.) 5OH-MEHP (µg/g Creatinine) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mother | ||||||
Maternal age | <34 years | 82.2 | 21.98 (3.71) | 5.99 (3.32) | 0.95 (2.92) | 9.03 (3.16) |
≥34 years | 17.8 | 23.57 (4.31) | 6.89 (3.06) | 0.96 (3.22) | 9.39 (2.77) | |
Maternal education | <College | 69.2 | 21.98 (3.94) | 6.11 (3.22) | 0.94 (2.97) | 8.58 (3.25) |
≥College | 30.8 | 21.33 (3.49) | 6.05 (3.35) | 0.94 (2.89) | 10.28 (2.86) | |
Maternal nationality | Taiwan | 93.8 | 22.20 (3.86) | 5.99 (3.22) * | 0.94 (2.94) | 9.21 (3.16) |
others | 6.2 | 16.78 (2.59) | 8.67 (4.10) | 0.95 (3.03) | 7.24 (2.83) | |
Maternal history of atopy | No | 64.9 | 23.10 (3.97) | 6.17 (3.46) | 0.86 (2.92) | 9.49 (3.13) |
Yes | 35.1 | 20.49 (3.60) | 6.11 (3.06) | 1.16 (3.00) | 8.25 (3.06) | |
Children | ||||||
Gender | Male | 57.7 | 23.81 (3.94) | 7.69 (3.90) | 0.93 (2.97) | 9.97 (3.29) |
Female | 42.3 | 21.98 (3.86) | 5.93 (3.42) | 0.99 (2.89) | 8.76 (3.46) | |
Birth weight | <2500 gm | 5.4 | 15.33 (3.97) | 7.46 (2.97) | 1.02 (2.72) | 7.03 (3.03) |
≥2500 gm | 94.6 | 22.87 (3.74) | 6.17 (3.32) | 0.92 (2.94) | 9.58 (3.22) | |
Gestational age | <37 weeks | 9.0 | 22.20 (3.29) | 6.05 (2.94) | 0.70 (2.32) | 9.12 (2.64) |
≥37 weeks | 91.0 | 21.98 (3.82) | 6.30 (3.35) | 0.97 (2.97) | 9.30 (3.25) | |
Parity | <2 | 82.5 | 22.65 (3.63) | 6.49 (3.35) * | 0.96 (2.86) * | 9.30 (3.19) |
≥2 | 17.5 | 19.30 (4.53) | 5.00 (2.97) | 0.83 (3.25) | 8.25 (2.89) | |
Breast feeding | No | 23.6 | 17.81 (3.71) | 5.93 (3.60) | 0.90 (3.25) | 8.58 (3.16) |
Yes | 76.4 | 22.65 (3.71) | 6.36 (3.25) | 0.94 (2.86) | 9.39 (3.22) | |
Family income per year | ||||||
<600,000 NT dollars | 31.3 | 21.12 (3.53) | 6.55 (3.22) | 0.91 (2.86) | 9.49 (3.19) | |
600,000–1,500,000 NT dollars | 60.7 | 23.81 (3.94) | 6.42 (3.39) | 0.96 (3.06) | 9.97 (3.29) | |
>1,500,000 NT dollars | 8.0 | 20.49 (4.31) | 6.05 (3.39) | 0.99 (3.39) | 6.69 (2.72) |
Environmental Factors | % | MEP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBzP (µg/g Creatinine) | 5OH-MEHP (µg/g Creatinine) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot food with plastic bags | Seldom | 20.5 | 21.67 (4.07) | 6.54 (3.00) | 0.96 (3.04) | 7.66 (2.73) |
Usually | 79.5 | 25.02 (3.95) | 7.15 (3.36) | 0.93 (2.82) | 11.08 (3.43) | |
p value | 0.83 | 0.40 | 0.88 | 0.15 | ||
PVC film stored or heated food | Seldom | 42.4 | 19.82 (3.70) | 7.24 (3.19) | 0.83 (2.73) | 9.59 (3.04) |
Usually | 57.6 | 27.82 (4.13) | 6.86 (3.35) | 1.01 (2.92) | 10.46(3.43) | |
p value | 0.22 | 0.73 | 0.37 | 0.33 | ||
Microwave heated food | Seldom | 41.6 | 21.06 (3.81) | 6.08 (2.81) | 0.97 (2.67) | 9.34 (2.82) |
Usually | 58.4 | 26.58 (4.07) | 7.78 (3.58) | 0.90 (2.97) | 10.85 (3.64) | |
p value | 0.29 | 0.02 * | 0.51 | 0.06 | ||
Plastic bottle drinks | Seldom | 9.1 | 13.72 (2.74) | 6.10 (2.59) | 1.08 (3.58) | 9.68 (4.58) |
Usually | 90.9 | 25.53 (4.05) | 7.12 (3.34) | 0.92 (2.77) | 10.25 (3.19) | |
p value | <0.01 * | 0.06 | 0.87 | 0.51 | ||
Plastic nursing bottle, nipple | Seldom | 82.4 | 23.16 (4.54) | 7.03 (3.22) | 0.93 (2.65) | 9.88 (3.32) |
Usually | 17.6 | 25.13 (3.87) | 7.18 (3.76) | 1.06 (3.85) | 12.08 (3.48) | |
p value | 0.58 | 0.76 | 0.28 | 0.77 | ||
Products containing fragrance | Seldom | 97.9 | 24.15 (3.83) | 7.06 (3.29) | 0.94 (2.81) | 8.72 (2.20) |
Usually | 2.1 | 80.07 (12.25) | 7.16 (4.51) | 1.44 (5.19) | 10.27 (3.38) | |
p value | 0.02 * | 0.68 | 0.51 | 0.65 | ||
Wash hands before eating | <2 meals/day | 3.7 | 24.37 (3.90) | 7.05 (3.22) | 0.93 (2.86) | 10.14 (3.24) |
≥2 meals/day | 96.3 | 21.41 (6.28) | 6.34 (5.18) | 0.69 (1.60) | 9.13 (4.38) | |
p value | 0.55 | 0.45 | 0.04 * | 0.76 | ||
Instant noodles intake | Seldom | 33.4 | 22.32 (3.99) | 6.88 (3.11) | 0.88 (2.66) | 9.83 (3.25) |
Usually | 66.6 | 25.09 (3.97) | 7.32 (3.61) | 1.04 (3.19) | 10.97 (3.41) | |
p value | 0.61 | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.33 | ||
PVC flooring | No | 78.6 | 23.27 (4.14) | 6.94 (3.15) | 0.88 (2.91) | 10.24 (3.30) |
Yes | 21.4 | 24.16 (3.07) | 7.53 (3.82) | 0.95 (2.86) | 10.54 (3.27) | |
p value | 0.34 | 0.21 | 0.63 | 0.94 | ||
Incense burning at home | <3 times/month | 47.3 | 24.16 (3.95) | 6.61 (3.47) | 0.91 (2.7) | 11.14 (3.49) |
Usually | 52.7 | 22.91 (3.85) | 7.50 (3.11) | 0.95 (3.01) | 9.51 (3.11) | |
p value | 0.93 | 0.65 | 0.29 | 0.79 | ||
ETS exposure | No | 46.8 | 26.40 (4.14) | 6.78 (3.34) | 0.89 (2.85) | 9.68 (3.36) |
Yes | 53.2 | 22.97 (3.87) | 7.49 (3.26) | 0.98 (2.91) | 10.98 (3.24) | |
p value | 0.94 | 0.92 | 0.34 | 0.84 | ||
Dehumidifier at home | No | 57.9 | 24.01 (3.77) | 7.36 (3.34) | 0.94 (2.76) | 10.65 (3.33) |
Yes | 42.1 | 23.98 (4.09) | 6.82 (3.23) | 0.94 (3.05) | 9.69 (3.31) | |
p value | 0.88 | 0.42 | 0.58 | 0.60 |
DEHP Contaminated Food Intake | % | MEP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBzP (µg/g Creatinine) | 5OH-MEHP (µg/g Creatinine) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
None | 67.9 | 16.47 (4.24) | 4.47 (3.14) | 0.59 (2.54) | 7.57 (2.66) |
Juice, jelly | 6.2 | 16.65 (2.46) | 4.63 (2.13) | 0.57 (1.86) | 7.61 (1.82) |
Sport drink | 17.7 | 24.15(4.23) | 5.97 (3.36) | 0.81 (3.16) | 9.23 (1.08) |
Probiotics, vitamin supplements | 8.1 | 21.44(2.51) | 6.48(2.69) | 0.90 (2.86) | 19.19 (4.08) * |
p value | 0.77 | 0.48 | 0.55 | <0.001 |
Environmental Factors | % | MEP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBP (µg/g Creatinine) | MBzP (µg/g Creatinine) | 5OH-MEHP (µg/g Creatinine) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hot food with plastic bags | Seldom | 18.0 | 24.80 (4.35) | 6.97 (4.70) | 0.91 (2.78) | 12.29 (3.64) |
Usually | 82.0 | 25.49 (4.21) | 7.02 (4.02) | 1.01 (3.26) | 12.92 (3.57) | |
p value | 0.91 | 0.56 | 0.42 | 0.76 | ||
PVC film stored or heated food | Seldom | 43.5 | 24.59 (4.51) | 6.61 (3.86) | 0.90 (2.83) | 11.26 (3.63) |
Usually | 56.5 | 25.98 (4.03) | 7.94 (4.48) | 0.96 (2.91) | 13.36 (3.61) | |
p value | 0.82 | 0.33 | 0.90 | 0.32 | ||
Microwave heated food | Seldom | 46.6 | 21.49 (3.79) | 6.96 (3.84) | 0.90 (2.70) | 11.16 (3.36) |
Usually | 53.4 | 29.32 (4.57) | 7.34 (4.40) | 0.95 (3.06) | 13.59 (3.85) | |
p value | 0.22 | 0.37 | 0.37 | 0.03 * | ||
Plastic bottle drinks | Seldom | 10.6 | 24.82 (4.30) | 7.01 (4.17) | 0.92 (2.85) | 12.36 (3.61) |
Usually | 89.4 | 30.46 (3.64) | 8.57 (3.83) | 0.99 (2.99) | 12.77 (3.84) | |
p value | 0.63 | 0.88 | 0.96 | 0.85 | ||
Plastic nursing bottle, nipple | Seldom | 85.6 | 22.26 (4.11) | 6.62 (4.22) | 0.89 (2.75) | 11.32 (3.57) |
Usually | 14.4 | 58.97 (4.30) | 12.02 (3.62) | 1.14 (3.49) | 21.01 (4.10) | |
p value | 0.12 | 0.54 | 0.29 | 0.18 | ||
Products containing fragrance | Seldom | 95.4 | 23.78 (4.04) | 6.95 (4.20) | 0.71 (1.37) | 12.00 (3.60) |
Usually | 4.6 | 120.14 (6.71) | 15.48 (3.19) | 0.93 (2.91) | 32.83 (3.79) | |
p value | <0.01 * | 0.72 | 0.34 | 0.02 * | ||
Wash hands before eating | <2 meals/day | 4.3 | 41.09 (10.14) | 7.20 (4.12) | 0.94 (2.90) | 32.05 (4.36) |
≥2 meals/day | 95.7 | 24.82 (4.03) | 6.34 (4.61) | 0.64 (1.83) | 12.06 (3.50) | |
p value | <0.01 * | 0.80 | 0.35 | 0.01 * | ||
Instant noodles intake | Seldom | 37.3 | 25.84 (3.87) | 6.21 (4.15) | 0.88 (2.83) | 10.98 (3.47) |
Usually | 62.7 | 25.09 (4.45) | 7.79 (4.10) | 1.00 (2.92) | 13.33 (3.70) | |
p value | 0.47 | 0.83 | 0.41 | 0.26 | ||
PVC flooring | No | 78.2 | 24.54 (4.13) | 5.12 (3.45) | 0.74 (2.45) | 10.37 (3.74) |
Yes | 21.8 | 26.84 (3.87) | 7.68 (4.31) | 0.99 (2.94) | 12.91 (3.55) | |
p value | 0.84 | 0.03 * | 0.04 * | 0.50 | ||
Incense burning at home | <3 times/month | 51.5 | 28.78 (3.57) | 7.61 (4.43) | 0.83 (2.76) | 12.03 (3.47) |
Usually | 48.5 | 21.56 (4.57) | 6.46 (3.86) | 1.04 (2.91) | 12.60 (3.74) | |
p value | 0.71 | 0.27 | 0.52 | 0.45 | ||
ETS exposure | No | 52.8 | 27.40 (4.23) | 6.22 (3.88) | 1.02 (2.86) | 11.51 (3.57) |
Yes | 47.2 | 24.79 (4.23) | 8.22 (4.30) | 0.81 (2.68) | 13.46 (3.70) | |
p value | 0.90 | 0.27 | 0.15 | 0.88 | ||
Dehumidifier at home | No | 55.2 | 29.53 (4.18) | 7.72 (4.29) | 0.97 (3.17) | 13.34 (3.61) |
Yes | 44.8 | 19.89 (3.89) | 6.11 (3.84) | 0.90 (2.44) | 11.31 (3.46) | |
p value | 0.30 | 0.32 | 0.09 | 0.45 |
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Huang, C.-F.; Wang, I.-J. Changes in Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Levels Before and After the Phthalate Contamination Event and Identification of Exposure Sources in a Cohort of Taiwanese Children. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 935. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080935
Huang C-F, Wang I-J. Changes in Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Levels Before and After the Phthalate Contamination Event and Identification of Exposure Sources in a Cohort of Taiwanese Children. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(8):935. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080935
Chicago/Turabian StyleHuang, Chian-Feng, and I-Jen Wang. 2017. "Changes in Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Levels Before and After the Phthalate Contamination Event and Identification of Exposure Sources in a Cohort of Taiwanese Children" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 8: 935. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080935