Long-Term Atmospheric Visibility Trends and Their Relations to Socioeconomic Factors in Xiamen City, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection and Analysis
2.2. Model Development and Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Trends and Characteristics of Atmospheric Visibility and Socioeconomic Factors
3.1.1. Atmospheric Visibility
3.1.2. Socioeconomic Factors
3.2. Model Analysis
3.2.1. Model Validation
3.2.2. Modeling Results
4. Discussion
4.1. The Role of Residents’ Activities on Atmospheric Visibility in Xiamen
4.2. The Role of Industrial Activities on Atmosphercic Visibility in Xiamen
4.3. The Role of Urban Size on Atmospheric Visibility in Xiamen
4.4. The Role of Urban Greening on Visibility in Xiamen
4.5. The Joint Contribution of Socioeconomic Factors
4.6. Policy Implications
4.7. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Indicator | Effect | Sources |
---|---|---|
City size | ||
Urban built-up areas (UBA) | Negative | [33,34] |
Resident populations (RP) | Negative | [33,35,36] |
Industrial activities | ||
Secondary industry gross domestic product (SGDP) | Negative | [8,20,33] |
Industrial waste gas (IWG) | Negative | [8,19,20,21,37] |
Industrial dust emissions (IDE) | Negative | [25,34,38] |
Sulphur dioxide emissions (SDE) | Negative | [25,34,38] |
Industrial electricity consumption (IEC) | Negative | [39,40] |
Residents’ activities | ||
Numbers of civilian vehicles (NCV) | Negative | [18,19,20,33,41] |
Total retail sales of consumer goods (TRSCG) | Negative | [19,32,42] |
Household electricity consumption (HEC) | Negative | [32,43] |
Urban greening | ||
Green covered area of completed area (GCACA) | Positive | [23,44,45,46] |
Rate of green covered area of completed area (RGCACA) | Positive | [23,44,45,46] |
Area of green land (AGL) | Positive | [22,24,46,47,48] |
1987–1991 | 1992–1996 | 1997–2001 | 2002–2006 | 2007–2011 | 2012–2016 | 1987–2016 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Visibility | 17.14 | 13.92 | 11.52 | 10.54 | 10.55 | 8.33 | 12.00 |
Standard Deviation | ±0.3395 | ±1.6692 | ±0.3061 | ±0.3603 | ±0.3811 | ±1.2518 | ±2.9909 |
Trend | −0.15 | −0.98 | 0.02 | −0.20 | 0.001 | −0.61 | −0.315 |
Resident Populations (RP) | Urban Built-Up Areas (UBA) | Industrial Electricity Consumption (IEC) | Secondary Industry GDP (SGDP) | Industrial Waste Gas (IWG) | Industrial Dust Emission (IDE) | Sulphur Dioxide Emission (SDE) | |
Annual mean AV | −0.846 ** | −0.798 ** | −0.821 ** | −0.797 ** | −0.778 ** | 0.625 ** | 0.410 * |
Good AV rate | −0.762 ** | −0.702 ** | −0.733 ** | −0.706 ** | −0.688 ** | 0.596 ** | 0.486 ** |
Bad AV rate | −0.587 ** | −0.582 ** | −0.600 ** | −0.586 ** | −0.636 ** | 0.447 * | 0.223 |
Total Retail Sales of Consumer Goods (TRSCG) | Numbers of Civilian Vehicles (NCV) | Household Electricity Consumption (HEC) | Green Covered Area of Completed Area GCACA | Rate of Green Covered Area of Completed Area (RGCACA) | Area of Green Land (AGL) | ||
Annual mean AV | −0.768 ** | −0.770 ** | −0.803 ** | −0.740 ** | −0.880 ** | −0.740 ** | |
Good AV rate | −0.658 ** | −0.654 ** | −0.703 ** | −0.647 ** | −0.896 ** | −0.647 ** | |
Bad AV rate | −0.563 ** | −0.556 ** | −0.582 ** | −0.554 ** | −0.509 ** | −0.552 ** |
Latent Variable | Measurement Items | Factor Loadings | AVE | CR | Cronbach’s α |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban size | Resident population (RP) | 0.994 | 0.9801 | 0.99 | 0.769 |
Urban built-up areas (UBA) | 0.986 | ||||
Industry | Secondary industry GDP (SGDP) | 0.984 | 0.9553 | 0.9846 | 0.603 |
Industrial waste gas (IWG) | 0.961 | ||||
Industrial electricity consumption (IEC) | 0.987 | ||||
Resident’s activities | Total retail sales of consumer goods (TRSCG) | 0.974 | 0.9578 | 0.9855 | 0.582 |
Numbers of civilian vehicles (NCV) | 0.974 | ||||
Household electricity consumption (HEC) | 0.988 | ||||
Visibility | Annual mean visibility (AMV) | −0.881 | 0.7575 | 0.9032 | 0.759 |
Good visibility rate (GVR) | −0.797 | ||||
Bad visibility rate (BVR) | −0.928 |
Fitting Indicators | χ2 | χ2/df | AIC | BCC | NFI | IFI | CFI | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model A | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model B | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model C | 173.555 | 5.599 | 241.555 | 283.111 | 0.837 | 0.862 | 0.859 | 0.450 |
Model D | 154.103 | 4.971 | 222.103 | 254.625 | 0.852 | 0.878 | 0.875 | 0.462 |
Model E | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model F | 158.181 | 5.103 | 226.181 | 267.736 | 0.852 | 0.878 | 0.875 | 0.453 |
Model G | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model H | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model I | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Model J | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Socioeconomic Variables | Normalized Coefficient | ||
---|---|---|---|
Direct Influence | Indirect Influence | Total Influence | |
Industrial activities | −0.159 | −0.516 | −0.675 |
Urban size | 0 | −0.522 | −0.522 |
Residents’ activities | −0.523 | 0 | −0.523 |
Socioeconomic Factors | Indicators | Normalized Coefficient | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Direct | Indirect | Total | ||
Urban size | Resident populations | 0 | −0.244 | −0.244 |
Urban built-up areas | 0 | −0.246 | −0.246 | |
Industrial activities | Secondary industry GDP | −0.096 | −0.246 | −0.342 |
Industrial electricity consumption | −0.093 | −0.239 | −0.332 | |
Residents’ activities | Total retail sales of consumer goods | −0.163 | 0 | −0.163 |
Household electricity consumption | −0.164 | 0 | −0.164 | |
Numbers of civilian vehicles | −0.163 | 0 | −0.163 |
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Fu, W.; Liu, Q.; Konijnendijk van den Bosch, C.; Chen, Z.; Zhu, Z.; Qi, J.; Wang, M.; Dang, E.; Dong, J. Long-Term Atmospheric Visibility Trends and Their Relations to Socioeconomic Factors in Xiamen City, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102239
Fu W, Liu Q, Konijnendijk van den Bosch C, Chen Z, Zhu Z, Qi J, Wang M, Dang E, Dong J. Long-Term Atmospheric Visibility Trends and Their Relations to Socioeconomic Factors in Xiamen City, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(10):2239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102239
Chicago/Turabian StyleFu, Weicong, Qunyue Liu, Cecil Konijnendijk van den Bosch, Ziru Chen, Zhipeng Zhu, Jinda Qi, Mo Wang, Emily Dang, and Jianwen Dong. 2018. "Long-Term Atmospheric Visibility Trends and Their Relations to Socioeconomic Factors in Xiamen City, China" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 10: 2239. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102239