Using Cross-Sectional Data to Identify and Quantify the Relative Importance of Factors Associated with and Leading to Food Insecurity
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Measures
2.2. Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Direct Associations with Food Insecurity
3.2. Effect Modifiers in the Food Insecurity Path
3.3. Adjustment for Covariates and Indicators of Hypothetical Causality
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Demographic Variables | Unwght % | Wght % | 95% CI | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
18–24 | 7.8 | 8.0 | [6.5, 9.9] | |
25–34 | 5.1 | 4.9 | [3.8, 6.2] | |
35–44 | 3.6 | 3.2 | [2.6, 4.0] | |
45–54 | 2.8 | 2.4 | [1.9, 2.9] | |
55–64 | 2.0 | 1.6 | [1.3, 2.0] | <0.0001 |
Tertiary education | 1.4 | 1.9 | [1.3, 2.6] | |
Less than tertiary education | 3.8 | 4.7 | [4.1, 5.3] | <0.0001 |
Employed | 2.2 | 2.9 | [2.5, 3.4] | |
Unemployed | 11.4 | 12.6 | [9.0, 17.7] | |
Home duties | 4.3 | 5.2 | [4.0, 6.7] | |
Retired | 2.3 | 2.0 | [1.3, 3.0] | |
Student | 7.5 | 7.1 | [4.8, 10.3] | |
Unable to work | 17.3 | 17.6 | [13.2, 23.0] | <0.0001 |
Annual household income: over AUD $40,000 | 1.7 | 2.4 | [2.0, 2.9] | |
Annual household income: AUD $20,001–$40,000 | 7.0 | 9.6 | [7.6, 12.2] | |
Annual household income: up to AUD $20,000 | 15.0 | 17.8 | [14.2, 22.2] | <0.0001 |
Spend left over money or save some per pay | 1.1 | 1.7 | [1.4, 2.0] | |
Just enough money to get by per pay | 10.6 | 12.5 | [10.7, 14.5] | |
Not enough money to get by per pay | 17.5 | 19.0 | [15.1, 23.6] | <0.0001 |
Not aboriginal | 3.1 | 3.8 | [3.4, 4.2] | |
Aboriginal | 12.5 | 15.0 | [9.8, 22.1] | <0.0001 |
Adults living with others | 2.8 | 3.7 | [3.3, 4.2] | |
Adults living alone | 6.0 | 6.4 | [5.2, 7.8] | <0.0001 |
Born outside Australia | 2.8 | 2.9 | [2.3, 3.7] | |
Born in Australia | 3.5 | 4.4 | [3.9, 5.0] | 0.002 |
Rents or pays mortgage | 4.1 | 4.6 | [4.3, 5.0] | |
No mortgage or Government subsidized housing | 2.5 | 3.1 | [2.7, 3.4] | 0.0003 |
SEIFA b Quintile 5 (least disadvantaged area) | 2.4 | 2.9 | [2.3, 3.6] | |
SEIFA Quintiles 3,4 (less disadvantaged areas) | 3.4 | 4.5 | [3.9, 5.3] | |
SEIFA Quintiles 1,2 (most disadvantages areas) | 4.0 | 5.2 | [4.2, 6.4] | <0.0001 |
Has a health care card | 10.3 | 11.3 | [9.7, 13.2] | <0.0001 |
Doesn’t have private health insurance | 7.0 | 8.3 | [7.2, 9.6] | <0.0001 |
Has asthma | 5.7 | 6.3 | [4.7, 8.4] | 0.0011 |
Some cardiovascular condition | 5.8 | 7.4 | [4.9, 11.0] | 0.0022 |
Has cancer | 4.5 | 7.0 | [4.3, 11.3] | 0.0167 |
Current mental health (depression/anxiety/other) | 9.1 | 9.7 | [8.3, 11.4] | <0.0001 |
Health rated as fair/poor | 8.8 | 8.9 | [7.2, 11.0] | <0.0001 |
Always or often feel a lack of control over health | 12.8 | 13.9 | [11.0, 17.3] | <0.0001 |
Health rated worse than 12 months ago | 7.3 | 9.4 | [7.6, 11.6] | <0.0001 |
High/very high Kessler 10 score | 14.1 | 14.8 | [12.4, 17.6] | <0.0001 |
BMI 30 or more (in obese range) | 4.3 | 5.2 | [4.4, 6.1] | <0.0012 |
Currently smoking | 7.1 | 8.5 | [7.0, 10.3] | <0.0001 |
Does no leisure time physical activity | 4.4 | 5.5 | [4.0, 7.5] | 0.0447 |
Spends four or more hours sitting in leisure time | 6.4 | 7.6 | [5.8, 9.8] | <0.0001 |
Eats ‘fast food’ c three or more times a week | 9.1 | 11.9 | [8.3, 17.0] | <0.0001 |
Uses full fat milk | 4.6 | 5.7 | [4.9, 6.7] | <0.0001 |
Doesn’t eat any fruit | 6.3 | 6.4 | [4.5, 9.1] | |
Eats less than two serves of fruit daily | 3.4 | 4.2 | [3.6, 4.9] | |
Eats two or more serves of fruit daily | 2.7 | 3.3 | [2.8, 4.0] | 0.0030 |
Doesn’t eat any vegetables | 15.0 | 14.9 | [6.5, 30.4] | |
Eats less than five serves daily | 3.3 | 4.0 | [3.6, 4.5] | |
Eats five or more serves daily | 2.3 | 2.6 | [1.7, 3.9] | <0.0012 |
Main Effects | Odd Ratio (95% CI) | p |
---|---|---|
35 over | Ref | |
18–34 years | 5.29 (3.65, 7.65) | 0.000 |
Has tertiary education | Ref | |
Does not have tertiary education | 1.87 (1.38, 2.54) | 0.000 |
Not Aboriginal | Ref | |
Aboriginal | 2.07 (1.34, 3.2) | 0.001 |
Household income over $40,000 | Ref | |
Household income $20,000 to $40,000 | 1.65 (1.29, 2.1) | 0.000 |
Household income under $20,000 | 5.28 (3.91, 7.13) | 0.000 |
Can save a bit of money | Ref | |
Just enough money to get by | 1.08 (0.69, 1.71) | 0.730 |
Not enough money to get by | 3.11 (2.17, 4.46) | 0.000 |
Has private health insurance | Ref | |
Has no private health insurance | 1.80 (1.46, 2.22) | 0.000 |
Does not have doctor diagnosed mental health problem | Ref | |
Has a doctor diagnosed mental health problem | 2.56 (1.96, 3.35) | 0.000 |
Low or moderate Kessler 10 score | Ref | |
High or very high Kessler 10 score | 1.65 (1.31, 2.06) | 0.000 |
Health same or better than same time previous year | Ref | |
Health worse or much worse than same time previous year | 1.70 (1.37, 2.09) | 0.000 |
Does not smoke | Ref | |
Smokes | 1.58 (1.29, 1.93) | 0.000 |
Is not in Body Mass Index obese range | Ref | |
Is in Body Mass Index obese range | 1.44 (1.18, 1.76) | 0.000 |
Eats some vegetables daily | Ref | |
Eats no vegetables daily | 2.40 (1.34, 4.3) | 0.003 |
Eats fast foods less than three times a week | Ref | |
Eats fast foods three or more times a week | 1.83 (1.11, 3.01) | 0.018 |
Interaction terms | ||
Has just enough money to get by # age 18–24 years | 0.56 (0.35, 0.91) | 0.019 |
Has a mental health problem # age 18–24 years | 0.52 (0.31, 0.86) | 0.010 |
Housing whether or not owned or rented # Not enough or just enough money to get by | 3.35 (2.41, 4.65) | 0.000 |
Household income under $20,000 # Not enough or just enough money to get by | 3.05 (1.94, 4.80) | 0.000 |
Outcome: ‘Running out of Food’ at Least Once in the Previous Twelve Months | Coef. | 95% | CI | Robust Std. Err | Z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annual household income | ||||||
Average effect when income <$20,000 | 0.038 | 0.013 | 0.063 | 0.013 | 3.02 | 0.003 |
Probability if income is >$20,000 | 0.028 | 0.025 | 0.03 | 0.001 | 19.33 | <0.001 |
Discretional income | ||||||
Difference between spend left over vs. able to save | 0.023 | 0.014 | 0.033 | 0.005 | 4.85 | <0.001 |
Difference between just enough vs. able to save | 0.056 | 0.046 | 0.067 | 0.005 | 10.48 | <0.001 |
Difference between not enough vs. able to save | 0.066 | 0.048 | 0.083 | 0.009 | 7.38 | <0.001 |
Average probability of outcome for those able to save | 0.012 | 0.009 | 0.014 | 0.001 | 9.05 | <0.001 |
Obesity | ||||||
Difference in probability when obese | 0.008 | 0.003 | 0.013 | 0.003 | 3.15 | 0.002 |
Average probability of outcome if not obese | 0.029 | 0.026 | 0.032 | 0.002 | 17.88 | <0.001 |
Outcome: | Coef. | 95% | CI | Robust Std. Err | Z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eats fast food more than three times a week | ||||||
Difference in probability of ‘running out of food’ vs. not | −0.007 | −0.013 | −0.0002 | 0.003 | −2.03 | 0.042 |
Average probability of outcome when didn’t run out | 0.019 | <0.001 | 0.017 | 0.001 | 17.83 | <0.001 |
Eats no vegetables | ||||||
Difference in probability of fast food >2 times weekly | 0.029 | 0.007 | 0.051 | 0.011 | 2.61 | 0.009 |
Average probability of FI when fast food <3 times weekly | 0.006 | 0.005 | 0.007 | 0.001 | 10.32 | <0.001 |
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Daly, A.; Pollard, C.M.; Kerr, D.A.; Binns, C.W.; Caraher, M.; Phillips, M. Using Cross-Sectional Data to Identify and Quantify the Relative Importance of Factors Associated with and Leading to Food Insecurity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122620
Daly A, Pollard CM, Kerr DA, Binns CW, Caraher M, Phillips M. Using Cross-Sectional Data to Identify and Quantify the Relative Importance of Factors Associated with and Leading to Food Insecurity. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(12):2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122620
Chicago/Turabian StyleDaly, Alison, Christina M. Pollard, Deborah A. Kerr, Colin W. Binns, Martin Caraher, and Michael Phillips. 2018. "Using Cross-Sectional Data to Identify and Quantify the Relative Importance of Factors Associated with and Leading to Food Insecurity" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 12: 2620. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15122620