Paraquat Exposure of Pregnant Women and Neonates in Agricultural Areas in Thailand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Analysis of Urine and Meconium Samples
2.3.1. Chemical Reagents
2.3.2. Urine Sample Preparation
2.3.3. Meconium Sample Preparation
2.3.4. High Performance Liquid Chromatography Analysis
2.4. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Agricultural Activities
3.3. Paraquat Concentrations in Urine and Meconium Samples
3.4. Paraquat Exposure from Agricultural Work Activities
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristics of Pregnant Women | 28 Weeks of Pregnancy |
---|---|
Number (%) | |
Age (years) | |
Mean (SD) years | 25.5 (4.3) |
Range (years) | 19–34 |
Education level | |
Primary school or lower | 19 (24) |
Junior high school | 31 (39) |
Senior high school or vocational certificate | 20 (25) |
College certificate or high vocational certificate | 7 (9) |
Bachelor degree | 2 (3) |
Occupation | |
Agriculturists | 32 (41) |
Other | 47 (59) |
You have farm family | |
Yes | 56 (71) |
No | 23 (29) |
Live next to farmland where pesticides are sprayed | |
Not near farmland | 36 (46) |
Near farmland where pesticides are sprayed | 42 (54) |
Agricultural Activities of Women | 28th Week of Pregnancy n (%) | 2 Months Postpartum n (%) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Visit agricultural fields | |||
Yes | 30 (40) | 3 (5) | <0.001 * |
No | 46 (60) | 56 (95) | |
Farm work related to growing plants | |||
Yes | 18 (25) | 1 (2) | <0.001 * |
No | 55 (75) | 61 (98) | |
Apply chemical fertilizer, manure or compost | |||
Yes | 14 (19) | 3 (5) | <0.001 * |
No | 59 (81) | 59 (95) | |
Dig in farm soil | |||
Yes | 14 (19) | 1 (2) | <0.001 * |
No | 59 (81) | 61 (98) | |
Apply pesticides | |||
Yes | 8 (11) | 0 (0) | 0.008 * |
No | 65 (89) | 62 (100) | |
Apply herbicide to control weeds | |||
Yes | 6 (8) | 1 (2) | 0.031 * |
No | 67 (92) | 61 (98) | |
Hand-pick crops, plants or flowers | |||
Yes | 19 (26) | 2 (3) | <0.001 * |
No | 54 (74) | 60 (97) | |
You or family members use paraquat | |||
Yes | 24 (36) | 17 (31) | 0.146 |
No | 43 (64) | 38 (69) |
Parameter | Agriculturists | Non-Agriculturists | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Urine at 28th Week of Pregnancy | n = 32 | n = 47 | |
Detection frequency (%) | 26 (81) | 39 (83) | |
GM (GSD) ng/mL | 1.86 (4.54) | 2.18 (4.05) | 0.632 |
Urine at Delivery | n = 30 | n = 47 | |
Detection frequency (%) | 22 (73) | 38 (81) | |
GM (GSD) ng/mL | 2.01 (5.45) | 2.10 (4.87) | 0.915 |
Meconium of neonates | n = 22 | n = 29 | |
Detection frequency (%) | 11 (50) | 17 (59) | |
GM (GSD) ng/g | 29.56 (4.69) | 36.48 (4.62) | 0.630 |
Urine at 2 months postpartum | n = 28 | n = 34 | |
Detection frequency (%) | 23 (82) | 25 (73) | |
GM (GSD) ng/mL | 2.76 (5.40) | 2.16 (5.36) | 0.570 |
Activities Reported by Women | Prenatal n = 79 (%) | Prenatal GM (GSD) | Birth n = 77 (%) | Birth GM (GSD) | Meconium n = 51 (%) | Meconium GM (GSD) | 2 Month Postpartum n = 62 (%) | 2 Month Postpartum GM (GSD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Have household family members who are agriculturists | ||||||||
Yes | 56 (71) | 2.11 (4.65) | 54 (71) | 1.96 (5.8) | 38 (75) | 42.09 (5.10) | 46 (74) | 2.13 (5.45) |
No | 23 (29) | 1.87 (3.29) | 23 (29) | 2.33 (3.49) | 13 (25) | 16.81 (2.47) | 16 (26) | 3.45 (4.97) |
p-value | 0.729 | 0.629 | 0.016 * | 0.326 | ||||
Worked outside your home | ||||||||
Yes | 39 (51) | 1.78 (4.27) | 37 (49) | 3.2 (5.1) | 20 (40) | 32.49 (5.26) | 15 (25) | 3.33 (5.1) |
No | 38 (49) | 2.22 (4.27) | 38 (51) | 1.38 (4.39) | 30 (60) | 33.88 (4.42) | 46 (75) | 2.16 (5.52) |
p-value | 0.504 | 0.021 * | 0.926 | 0.392 | ||||
Drink water from community well | ||||||||
Yes | 9 (12) | 1.63 (4.23) | 9 (12) | 1.82 (5.02) | 7 (14) | 124.9 (3.35) | 8 (13) | 1.11 (5.09) |
No | 69 (88) | 2.06 (4.25) | 67 (88) | 2.17 (5.01) | 44 (86) | 26.99 (4.37) | 53 (87) | 2.75 (5.35) |
p-value | 0.651 | 0.756 | 0.012 * | 0.121 | ||||
Live next to farmland where pesticides are sprayed | ||||||||
Yes | 42 (54) | 1.72 (4.11) | 41 (54) | 1.86 (5.71) | 29 (43) | 49.62 (4.79) | 34 (56) | 2.26 (5.09) |
No | 36 (46) | 2.39 (4.34) | 35 (46) | 2.50 (4.17) | 22 (57) | 19.70 (3.77) | 27 (44) | 2.68 (5.94) |
p-value | 0.313 | 0.43 | 0.031 * | 0.697 | ||||
You or your family applied herbicides | ||||||||
Yes | 43 (58) | 2.39 (4.69) | 41 (57) | 2.31 (5.8) | 29 (62) | 50.99 (4.05) | 34 (59) | 2.24 (5.25) |
No | 31 (42) | 2.03 (3.19) | 31 (43) | 1.86 (3.91) | 18 (38) | 13.53 (2.32) | 24 (41) | 3.63 (5.13) |
p-value | 0.601 | 0.578 | 0.001 * | 0.36 | ||||
You or family members use paraquat | ||||||||
Yes | 24 (36) | 2.53 (4.43) | 22 (34) | 2.24 (6) | 17 (40) | 73.29 (4.72) | 17 (31) | 1.48 (5.40) |
No | 43 (64) | 1.96 (3.59) | 43 (66) | 2.27 (4.58) | 26 (60) | 19.07 (3.39) | 38 (69) | 2.56 (5.34) |
p-value | 0.467 | 0.976 | 0.003 * | 0.268 | ||||
How often do you or your family members use herbicides per crop cycle? | ||||||||
A1. No | 31 (42) | 2.13 (3.23) | 31 (43) | 1.86 (3.91) | 18 (38) | 13.53 (2.32) | 24 (41) | 3.36 (5.13) |
A2 Once per crop cycle | 24 (32) | 1.87 (3.91) | 24 (33) | 1.31 (4.91) | 19 (41) | 44.79 (4.28) | 18 (31) | 2.83 (4.78) |
A3. More than once per crop cycle | 19 (26) | 2.52 (4.54) | 17 (24) | 5.13 (5.53) | 10 (21) | 65.21 (6.71) | 16 (28) | 1.72 (5.87) |
p-value for one way ANOVA | 0.908 | 0.02 * | 0.008 * | 0.451 | ||||
and all pairwise comparison | A1 vs. A3 p = 0.032 * A2 vs. A3 p = 0.006 * A1 vs. A2 p = 0.399 | A1 vs. A2 p = 0.011 * A1 vs. A3 p = 0.006 * A2 vs. A3 p = 0.487 |
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Konthonbut, P.; Kongtip, P.; Nankongnab, N.; Tipayamongkholgul, M.; Yoosook, W.; Woskie, S. Paraquat Exposure of Pregnant Women and Neonates in Agricultural Areas in Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061163
Konthonbut P, Kongtip P, Nankongnab N, Tipayamongkholgul M, Yoosook W, Woskie S. Paraquat Exposure of Pregnant Women and Neonates in Agricultural Areas in Thailand. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2018; 15(6):1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061163
Chicago/Turabian StyleKonthonbut, Pajaree, Pornpimol Kongtip, Noppanun Nankongnab, Mathuros Tipayamongkholgul, Witaya Yoosook, and Susan Woskie. 2018. "Paraquat Exposure of Pregnant Women and Neonates in Agricultural Areas in Thailand" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 15, no. 6: 1163. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061163