Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Human Blood: A Review of Data from the Current Decade
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in a Number of Countries
2.1. EUROPE
2.1.1. Italy
2.1.2. Belgium
2.1.3. Germany
2.1.4. Spain
2.1.5. Sweden
2.2. ASIA
2.2.1. China
2.2.2. Taiwan
2.2.3. Korea
2.2.4. Vietnam
2.2.5. Japan
2.3. AMERICA
2.3.1. USA
2.3.2. Mexico
2.4. AFRICA
2.4.1. South Africa
2.4.2. Ghana
2.4.3. Other Data from African Countries
2.5. AUSTRALIA
3. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
TEQ | Toxic Equivalents |
CALUX | Chemically Activated LUciferase gene eXpression |
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Country | Subjects of Study | Sample | Concentration | Main Conclusion | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Italy | Population potentially affected by Seveso accident | Plasma | Median levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD: very high contaminated site = 73.3 pg TEQ/g fat high contaminated site = 12.4 pg TEQ/g fat reference zone = 5.5 pg TEQ/g fat | The Seveso accident caused a severe exposure of the population to 2,3,7,8-TCDD. | [18] |
Belgium | Prenatal exposure to PCDD/Fs and association with body composition at 7–9 years | Plasma | Median concentration = 0.05 pg CALUX-TEQ/L (boys) Median concentration = 0.04 pg CALUX-TEQ/L (girls) | Prenatal exposure to dioxins was not associated with BMI | [19] |
1999 dioxin incident | Plasma | Geometric mean concentrations: 1998: 445 pg/g fat 2000: 417 pg/g fat | The total levels of dioxins in plasma significantly decreased between 1998 and 2000. However, no significant differences between the total plasma dioxins were noticed when OCDD concentrations were excluded | [20] | |
Germany | Population living in the surroundings of a reclamation plant | Plasma | Median concentration: 4.5 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | This study did not exhibit elevated internal exposures. The results also hint further decreasing tendencies for PCDD/Fs in Germany and demonstrate that people in the vicinity of a reclamation plant with no indication of environmental contamination did not exhibit elevated internal exposures | [21] |
Population living in Munich and surrounding | Plasma | Median concentration: 10.1 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | |||
Population living in Munich and surrounding | Plasma | Median concentration s: 6.2 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | |||
Spain | Population living in the surroundings of an HWI | Plasma | Mean concentrations: 1998: 27.0 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2002: 15.7 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2007: 9.4 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2012: 6.18 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2018: 6.79 pg I-TEQ/g fat | The continued reduction in the PCDD/F levels in plasma is in accordance, and runs in parallel, with the decreasing trend also observed in the dietary intake of PCDD/Fs | [22,23,24,25,26] |
Population living in the surroundings of an MSWI located in Bilbao | Plasma | Mean concentrations: 2006: 23.45 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2008: 23.60 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2013: 4.67 pg I-TEQ/g fat | Individuals living near to a solid waste MSWP did not have higher blood levels of OCs than those living further afield, and they decreased over time | [27,28,29] | |
Population living in the surroundings of an MSWI located in Mataró | Plasma | Mean concentrations of the exposed population: 1995: 14.2 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2002: 13.1 pg I-TEQ/g fat | No differences in blood levels of PCDD/Fs were noticed between subjects considered exposed and non-exposed to the emissions of the MSWI, suggesting once again that the main route of human exposure to PCDD/Fs in the diet | [30] | |
Range concentrations of the non-exposed population: 1995: 14.5-19.8 pg I-TEQ/g fat 2002: 13.1-13.8 pg I-TEQ/g fat | |||||
Sweeden | OCDD levels in subjects of the Prospective Investigation of the Vasculature in Uppsala Seniors | Plasma | Mean concentrations between 2001–2004: 376 ng/g fat (men) 465 ng/g fat (women) | The concentrations of OCDD were found similar, or comparable, to other studies of non-occupationally exposed populations from Sweden and Europe. Levels of OCDD were found to be higher in women. | [31] |
Plasma | <LD | OCDD were below the detection limit for all samples and therefore excluded from the longitudinal evaluation | [32] | ||
China | The mean blood levels of ΣPCDD/Fs in school-age children living near an MSWI | Blood | Exposed group: 3.40 pg/g wet weight 0.40 WHO-TEQ/g wet weight Control group: 2.77 F;pg/g wet weight 0.28 F;pg WHO-TEQ/g wet weight | The mean blood levels of ΣPCDD/Fs and TEQ-ΣPCDD/Fs were significantly higher in the potentially exposed group than in the control group. It was concluded that although the diet is the main route of exposure to PCDD/Fs, children living near the MSWI might suffer genetic and epigenetic modifications, such as DNA damage or global DNA hypomethylation, due to the MSWI-emitted PCDD/Fs. | [33] |
Taiwan | Endemic area of exposure to PCDD/Fs | Serum | 1143/2898 people: 20–63 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | Exposure to PCDD/Fs was a risk factor for diabetes mellitus, independently of the age and body mass index | [34] |
284/2898 people: >64 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | |||||
339 cases of diabetes mellitus (>20 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat) | |||||
General population | Serum | Median concentration = 11.5 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat (range 4.92–26.7) | The levels of PCDD/PCDFs increased by 0.16 WHO 1998-TEQ/g fat per year for subjects above the age of 30, but there was no evidence of any association between age and the levels for subjects below the age of 30 years. More research is needed to investigate the causes of the different trends in young and old subjects in Taiwan. | [35] | |
Vietnam | Men living around the Bien Hoa airbase | Blood | Geometric mean = 34.0 pg/g fat | Elevated dioxin concentrations in the blood of men living near the Bien Hoa airbase were found. Dioxin exposure may increase levels of prolactin and decreased levels of total testosterone in men. | [36] |
Japan | Pregnant women from Sapporo city | Blood | Arithmetic mean = 17.4 pg/g fat | The total TEQ concentration of PCDD/Fs in pregnant women has decreased compared to past levels in Japan for the last several decades | [37] |
Primiparous and secundiparous mothers from Sapporo | Blood | Mean concentration: 12.3 pg TEQ/g fat (primiparous mother) 9.8 pg TEQ/g fat (multiparous mother) | The body burdens of PCDD/Fs in mothers from Sapporo City was lower than that recently reported in Japan. These lower TEQ levels obtained in the present study may indicate a reduction of the background levels both in the environment and in the food of Sapporo City over recent decades | [38] | |
Primiparous mothers from Sapporo | Blood | Mean concentration = 11.1 pg TEQ/g fat | Statistically significant correlations were observed between maternal age and the total TEQ concentration of PCDD/Fs. The results obtained in the present study may provide useful information regarding the health risk of PCDD/Fs in children and aid in future epidemiological investigations of the effects of these compounds on children. | [39] | |
Secundiparous mothers from Sapporo | Blood | Mean concentration = 9.1 pg TEQ/g fat | These data may provide important information regarding the health risk of these compounds in infants. In the future, the collection of these data from many more mothers is warranted. Further research must be undertaken in the context of epidemiological investigations to more accurately assess the effects of these compounds on children | [40] | |
Subjects from 90 different study areas of 30 prefectures | Blood | Median concentration = 16 pg TEQ/g fat | The dietary habits were positively correlated with the blood levels of PCDD/Fs. In that case, the frequent intake of seafood and alcoholic beverages were associated with a higher total TEQ of PCDD/Fs in blood. | [41] | |
General population | Blood | Median blood levels = 9.4 (8.8–9.9) pg TEQ/g fat | Median blood dioxins and dietary dioxin intake were approximately 41% lower compared with data obtained in the period 2002–2010 | [42] | |
USA | New York State personnel responding to the WTC disaster of 11S collapse | Plasma | Mean concentrations of PCDDs: more smoke-exposed = 1070 pg/g fat more dust exposed = 223 pg/g fat less smoke exposed = 3690 pg/g fat less dust exposed = 732 pg/g fat. Mean levels of PCDFs more smoke-exposed = 910 pg/g fat more dust exposed = 1520 pg/g fat less smoke exposed= 230 pg/g fat less dust exposed = 117 pg/g fat | Plasma levels of PCDFs in more smoke exposure and more dust exposure groups were higher than the levels found for less smoke-and less dust-exposure groups, suggesting exposure of the WTC responders to PCDFs after the collapse of WTC. On the basis of TEQs, we conclude that PCDFs are the critical dioxin-like compounds in the more smoke-exposed/more dust exposed groups, whereas PCDDs are the critical contaminants in the less smoke-exposed/less dust exposed groups | [43] |
Youths present in lower Manhattan and aged < 8 years, on 11S collapse | Plasma | Mean concentration in WTC Health Registry (WTCHR) participants: 72.5 pg TEQ/g fat Mean concentration in non-WTCHR participants: 10.1 pg TEQ/g fat (>7 times than that observed in non-WTCHR participants) | Adolescents in lower Manhattan on the day of the WTC attack and exposed to particulate contamination from the WTC collapse had significantly elevated PCDD/F levels > 12 years later compared to a matched comparison group, driven by chronic home dust exposure rather than acute dust cloud exposure. PCDD/F and TEQ levels substantially exceeded those in similar-aged NHANES participants. Future studies are warranted to explore associations of PCDD/Fs with health and developmental outcomes among individuals exposed to the WTC disaster as children. | [44] | |
General population | Plasma | Mean PCDD/Fs concentrations: 1999–2000: 13.46 pg TEQ/g fat 2001–2002: 13.98 pg TEQ/g fat 2003–2004: 11.39 pg TEQ/g fat | From 1999 to 2004, PCDD/F serum levels decreased by 56% for the 12-to 19-year-old group and by 38% for the 20-to 39-year olds. A slight nonsignificant decrease was observed for 40-to 59-year olds and a slight significant increase was found for 60-year-olds. Interpretation of the data across time is complicated by certain aspects of the data unique to the various sampling time periods, thus, caution should be exercised when evaluating trend information. | [45] | |
Mexico | Pregnant women living in 10 Mexican cities | Plasma | The total levels of PCDDs = 5.0 pg TEQ/g fat The total levels of PCDFs = 1.3 pg TEQ/g fat | The levels of 2,3,7,8 TCDD-TEQ in the composite plasma samples were very similar in all cities, with the exception of Coatzacoalcos, where the PCDD-TEQ concentrations were more than the double of the levels found in other cities. Although this study provides useful information on the variability of PCDD/Fs in specific populations and possible regional/local differences, these results cannot be generalized to the entire Mexican population because of differences in age, gender, sources of exposure and nonrandom nature of the sample. | [46] |
South Africa | Population exposed to burning solid biofuel to cook | Serum | Mean concentration = 6.9 ± 3.3 pg/g fat. The females had higher serum levels of the PCDDs and PCDFs | The mean serum levels of PCDD/Fs for this rural population were comparable to unexposed human populations in other parts of the globe. Surprisingly, electricity (and gas and paraffin) users had significantly higher serum levels of PCDDs, PCDFs (pg/g fat, WHO-TEQ pg/g) and ΣPCDD/Fs. The role of gender was inconsistent in terms of the various compound categories, despite women having more body fat than men, they were not always the group with the highest burden of contaminants. The individuals who worked away from home seemed to be better off because they carried fewer pollutants | [47] |
Ghana | Primiparous mothers from Accra and Tema | Serum | Mean concentrations in Tema were 52.6 F;pg/g F;fat and 1.55 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat Mean concentrations in Accra were 71.8 F;pg/g F;fat and 2.64 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | Positive correlations were obtained for total dioxins concentrations with age and Body Mass Index. Dietary intake of seafood and dairy products had a strong influence on PCDD/F concentrations. Statistically significant differences were observed for dioxins in participants from Accra (in close proximity to Agbogbloshie e-waste site) and Tema. | [48] |
Australia | Local residents in Sidney exposed to dioxins from a large urban remediation process | Blood | Mean concentrations: Locals residents = 15.0 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat Control individuals = 13.1 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat | There was a decrease between both the local resident and control groups over the remediation period | [49] |
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Marquès, M.; Domingo, J.L. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Human Blood: A Review of Data from the Current Decade. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193566
Marquès M, Domingo JL. Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Human Blood: A Review of Data from the Current Decade. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(19):3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193566
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarquès, Montse, and Jose L. Domingo. 2019. "Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in Human Blood: A Review of Data from the Current Decade" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 19: 3566. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193566