Putting Co-Exposures on Equal Footing: An Ecological Analysis of Same-Scale Measures of Air Pollution and Social Factors on Cardiovascular Disease in New York City
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Data
2.2. Air Pollution
2.3. Social Factors at the Census Tract Level
2.3.1. Felony Assault and Violent Crime Rates
2.3.2. Sociodemographic Data
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
3.2. Unadjusted Models
3.3. Mutually-adjusted Models
3.4. Fully-adjusted Models
3.5. Sensitivity Analyses
4. Discussion
4.1. Strengths
4.2. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | Min | Mean | Max | Std Dev | Median | IQR | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age-Adjusted CVD/100,000 | 1981 | 1293 | 14,387 | 58,500 | 6316 | 13,046 | 7671 |
Average NO2 | 1981 | 12.7 | 24.4 | 38.0 | 3.4 | 24.4 | 3.9 |
Average PM2.5 | 1981 | 8.5 | 10.4 | 14.4 | 1.0 | 10.2 | 1.4 |
Average SO2 | 1981 | 1.4 | 4.4 | 11.7 | 2.0 | 3.8 | 2.1 |
Average O3 | 1981 | 21.1 | 27.2 | 32.9 | 1.5 | 27.4 | 1.6 |
Socioeconomic Deprivation Index (SDI)* | 1981 | −1.3 | 0.1 | 1.9 | 0.7 | 0 | 1.0 |
ICE Index: Race and Income (ICE R&I)* | 1981 | −0.6 | 0 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.3 |
200% of Federal Poverty Line | 1981 | 0 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Median Household Income | 1981 | 9662 | 54,344 | 136,053 | 22,903 | 51,786 | 30,679 |
Violent Crime Rate | 1981 | 0 | 44.2 | 323.3 | 39.0 | 33.8 | 44.3 |
Assault Rate | 1981 | 0 | 20.3 | 175.1 | 20.4 | 14.2 | 23.5 |
Non-Hispanic white | 1981 | 0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 |
Non-Hispanic black | 1981 | 0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 0.4 |
Hispanic | 1981 | 0 | 0.3 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
CVD | NO2 | PM2.5 | SO2 | O3 | SDI Index | ICE: R&I Index | Poverty | Median Income | Violent Crime | Assault Rate | %Non-Hispanic white | % Non-Hispanic black | % Hispanic | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean Age-Adjusted CVD/100,000 | 1.00 | |||||||||||||
Average NO2 | 0.16 | 1.00 | ||||||||||||
Average PM2.5 | 0.21 | 0.83 | 1.00 | |||||||||||
Average SO2 | 0.15 | 0.57 | 0.76 | 1.00 | ||||||||||
Average O3 | −0.12 | −0.92 | −0.80 | −0.57 | 1.00 | |||||||||
Socioeconomic Deprivation Index (SDI)* | 0.60 | 0.24 | 0.33 | 0.33 | −0.16 | 1.00 | ||||||||
ICE Index: Race and Income* | −0.64 | −0.10 | −0.12 | −0.15 | 0.04 | −0.70 | 1.00 | |||||||
200% of Federal Poverty Line | 0.57 | 0.29 | 0.37 | 0.34 | −0.20 | 0.95 | −0.63 | 1.00 | ||||||
Median Household Income | −0.51 | −0.19 | −0.24 | −0.27 | 0.10 | −0.90 | 0.72 | −0.86 | 1.00 | |||||
Violent Crime Rate | 0.56 | 0.28 | 0.28 | 0.19 | −0.19 | 0.46 | −0.53 | 0.44 | −0.39 | 1.00 | ||||
Assault Rate | 0.57 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.18 | −0.17 | 0.51 | −0.56 | 0.48 | −0.43 | 0.89 | 1.00 | |||
Non-Hispanic white | −0.51 | −0.12 | −0.15 | −0.19 | 0.06 | −0.54 | 0.84 | −0.48 | 0.49 | −0.49 | −0.50 | 1.00 | ||
Non-Hispanic black | 0.47 | −0.02 | −0.07 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.17 | −0.72 | 0.10 | −0.18 | 0.40 | 0.42 | −0.65 | 1.00 | |
Hispanic | 0.34 | 0.18 | 0.37 | 0.43 | −0.11 | 0.59 | −0.31 | 0.57 | −0.48 | 0.28 | 0.30 | −0.46 | −0.18 | 1.00 |
IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | |
---|---|---|---|
Air Pollutants | |||
Average NO2 | 1.09 | (1.07, 1.12) | 39,765 |
Average PM2.5 | 1.14 | (1.11, 1.17) | 39,721 |
Average SO2 | 1.07 | (1.05, 1.09) | 39,776 |
Average O3 | 0.94 | (0.92, 0.96) | 39,793 |
Social Factors | |||
Socioeconomic Deprivation Index | 1.43 | (1.40, 1.46) | 38,901 |
ICE: Race and Income | 0.69 | (0.68, 0.70) | 38,649 |
% living below 200% of Federal Poverty Line (FPL) | 1.45 | (1.42, 1.49) | 38,998 |
Median Household Income | 0.75 | (0.73, 0.76) | 39,142 |
Violent Crime Rate | 1.33 | (1.31, 1.36) | 39,023 |
Assault Rate | 1.34 | (1.32, 1.37) | 38,990 |
% Non-Hispanic white | 0.65 | (0.64, 0.67) | 39,086 |
% Non-Hispanic black | 1.35 | (1.32, 1.38) | 39,264 |
% Hispanic | 1.21 | (1.18, 1.24) | 39,567 |
NO2 | PM2.5 | SO2 | O3 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exposures | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC |
Pollutant | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.03) | 38,902 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 38,903 | 0.96 | (0.95, 0.98) | 38,884 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,903 |
SDI | 1.43 | (1.4, 1.46) | 1.43 | (1.4, 1.47) | 1.46 | (1.43, 1.49) | 1.43 | (1.4, 1.46) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.04 | (1.03, 1.06) | 38,623 | 1.07 | (1.05, 1.09) | 38,597 | 1.01 | (1, 1.03) | 38,647 | 0.97 | (0.96, 0.98) | 38,634 |
ICE: R&I | 0.69 | (0.68, 0.7) | 0.69 | (0.68, 0.71) | 0.69 | (0.68, 0.7) | 0.69 | (0.68, 0.7) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 39,000 | 0.99 | (0.97, 1.01) | 38,999 | 0.97 | (0.95, 0.98) | 38,984 | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,999 |
% < 200% FPL | 1.45 | (1.42, 1.49) | 1.46 | (1.42, 1.5) | 1.48 | (1.44, 1.52) | 1.46 | (1.42, 1.49) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.03 | (1.01, 1.05) | 39,133 | 1.04 | (1.02, 1.07) | 39,130 | 0.99 | (0.98, 1.01) | 39,144 | 0.98 | (0.96, 0.99) | 39,138 |
Median Income | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | 0.74 | (0.73, 0.76) | 0.75 | (0.73, 0.76) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 39,025 | 1.03 | (1.01, 1.06) | 39,016 | 1.02 | (1, 1.03) | 39,020 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 39,025 |
Violent Crime | 1.33 | (1.31, 1.36) | 1.32 | (1.29, 1.35) | 1.33 | (1.3, 1.35) | 1.33 | (1.31, 1.36) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,992 | 1.03 | (1.01, 1.05) | 38,984 | 1.02 | (1, 1.03) | 38,988 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 38,992 |
Assault Rate | 1.34 | (1.31, 1.37) | 1.33 | (1.3, 1.36) | 1.33 | (1.31, 1.36) | 1.34 | (1.31, 1.37) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.04 | (1.03, 1.06) | 39,065 | 1.07 | (1.05, 1.1) | 39,047 | 1.01 | (1, 1.03) | 39,086 | 0.97 | (0.95, 0.99) | 39,075 |
% non-Hispanic white | 0.66 | (0.64, 0.68) | 0.67 | (0.65, 0.68) | 0.66 | (0.64, 0.68) | 0.66 | (0.64, 0.68) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.09 | (1.07, 1.11) | 39,184 | 1.16 | (1.13, 1.18) | 39,093 | 1.08 | (1.06, 1.1) | 39,185 | 0.94 | (0.93, 0.96) | 39,227 |
% non-Hispanic black | 1.35 | (1.32, 1.38) | 1.36 | (1.33, 1.39) | 1.35 | (1.32, 1.38) | 1.35 | (1.32, 1.38) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.05 | (1.03, 1.08) | 39,544 | 1.06 | (1.03, 1.09) | 39,552 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 39,569 | 0.96 | (0.94, 0.98) | 39,554 |
% Hispanic | 1.20 | (1.17, 1.23) | 1.18 | (1.16, 1.21) | 1.21 | (1.18, 1.24) | 1.20 | (1.18, 1.23) |
NO2 | PM2.5 | SO2 | O3 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exposures | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC | IRR | (95% CI) | AIC |
Pollutant | 0.99 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,192 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 | 0.98 | (0.96, 0.99) | 38,182 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 |
SDI | 1.30 | (1.27, 1.33) | 1.30 | (1.27, 1.32) | 1.31 | (1.29, 1.34) | 1.30 | (1.27, 1.33) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,406 | 1.03 | (1.02, 1.05) | 38,394 | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.01) | 38,407 | 0.99 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,406 |
ICE: R&I | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | 0.75 | (0.74, 0.77) | ||||
Pollutant | 0.99 | (0.97, 1) | 38,205 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 38,209 | 0.98 | (0.97, 0.99) | 38,200 | 1.01 | (1, 1.03) | 38,205 |
% <200% FPL | 1.33 | (1.3, 1.36) | 1.32 | (1.29, 1.35) | 1.34 | (1.31, 1.37) | 1.33 | (1.3, 1.36) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,387 | 1.03 | (1.01, 1.05) | 38,376 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,388 | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,388 |
Median Income | 0.82 | (0.81, 0.84) | 0.83 | (0.81, 0.84) | 0.82 | (0.81, 0.84) | 0.82 | (0.81, 0.84) | ||||
Pollutant | 0.99 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,192 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 | 0.98 | (0.96, 0.99) | 38,182 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 |
Violent Crime | 1.12 | (1.1, 1.14) | 1.12 | (1.1, 1.14) | 1.12 | (1.1, 1.14) | 1.12 | (1.1, 1.14) | ||||
Pollutant | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,224 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.03) | 38,223 | 0.98 | (0.97, 0.99) | 38,216 | 1.00 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,224 |
Assault Rate | 1.11 | (1.09, 1.14) | 1.11 | (1.09, 1.13) | 1.12 | (1.09, 1.14) | 1.11 | (1.09, 1.14) | ||||
Pollutant | 0.98 | (0.96, 0.99) | 38,423 | 0.98 | (0.96, 1) | 38,425 | 0.96 | (0.95, 0.97) | 38,399 | 1.01 | (1, 1.03) | 38,427 |
% non-Hispanic white | 0.85 | (0.83, 0.88) | 0.85 | (0.83, 0.88) | 0.85 | (0.82, 0.87) | 0.85 | (0.83, 0.88) | ||||
Pollutant | 0.99 | (0.98, 1.01) | 38,192 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 | 0.98 | (0.96, 0.99) | 38,182 | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.02) | 38,192 |
% non-Hispanic black | 1.21 | (1.18, 1.23) | 1.21 | (1.18, 1.23) | 1.20 | (1.18, 1.23) | 1.21 | (1.18, 1.23) | ||||
Pollutant | 0.97 | (0.96, 0.99) | 38,530 | 0.97 | (0.95, 0.99) | 38,531 | 0.96 | (0.94, 0.97) | 38,513 | 1.02 | (1, 1.04) | 38,535 |
% Hispanic | 0.99 | (0.97, 1.02) | 1.00 | (0.98, 1.02) | 1.01 | (0.99, 1.03) | 0.99 | (0.97, 1.01) |
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Humphrey, J.L.; Reid, C.E.; Kinnee, E.J.; Kubzansky, L.D.; Robinson, L.F.; Clougherty, J.E. Putting Co-Exposures on Equal Footing: An Ecological Analysis of Same-Scale Measures of Air Pollution and Social Factors on Cardiovascular Disease in New York City. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234621
Humphrey JL, Reid CE, Kinnee EJ, Kubzansky LD, Robinson LF, Clougherty JE. Putting Co-Exposures on Equal Footing: An Ecological Analysis of Same-Scale Measures of Air Pollution and Social Factors on Cardiovascular Disease in New York City. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(23):4621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234621
Chicago/Turabian StyleHumphrey, Jamie L., Colleen E. Reid, Ellen J. Kinnee, Laura D. Kubzansky, Lucy F. Robinson, and Jane E. Clougherty. 2019. "Putting Co-Exposures on Equal Footing: An Ecological Analysis of Same-Scale Measures of Air Pollution and Social Factors on Cardiovascular Disease in New York City" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 23: 4621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234621