Lead Toxicity and Pollution in Poland
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lead Absorption
2.1. Lead Absorption, Excretion and Storage in Body
2.1.1. Ingestion
2.1.2. Lead in the Human Body
2.2. Lead’s Effects
2.2.1. Metabolic and Genetic Effects
2.2.2. Location of Lead in the Body
2.2.3. Children
2.2.4. Adults
2.3. Lead Exposure in Poland
2.3.1. In the Environment
2.3.2. In Paints
2.3.3. Lead in Food
2.4. Prevention and Monitoring of Lead Poisoning
3. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Pb | lead |
ALAD | aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase |
G6PD | glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase |
δ-ALAD | δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase |
δ-ALA | δ-aminolevulinic acid |
GSH | glutathione |
GSSG | glutathione disulfide |
WHO | World Health Organization |
IARC | International Agency for Research on Cancer |
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Blood Lead Level (µg/L) | Degrees of Lead Poisoning | Symptoms | |
---|---|---|---|
Adults | Children | ||
<10 | low | passing through the placenta into the fetal bloodstream | IQ reduction, learning and memory disabilities, growth disorders, reduced development, motor coordination, hearing, speech and verbal skills, symptoms of hyperactivity |
10–40 | mild | elevated blood pressure, slowed nerve conduction | deceleration of nerve conduction and vitamin D metabolism, impaired hemoglobin synthesis, sporadic intestinal discomfort, muscle pain, irritability, fatigue, apathy |
40–70 | moderate | drowsiness, fatigue, mood swings, reduced mental abilities, impaired fertility, chronic hypertension, impaired hemoglobin synthesis | difficulty concentrating, trembling, fatigue, muscular weakness, headache, vomiting, constipation, weight loss |
70–100 | serious | metallic taste in the mouth, constipation, headaches, abdominal pain, insomnia, memory loss, decreased sex drive, nephropathy | colic (severe intestinal musculoskeletal contractions), lead limbs (dark teeth and/or gums), anemia, nephropathy, encephalopathy, paralysis |
>100 | acute poisoning | encephalopathy, anemia, death (> 150 µg/L) | convulsions, death (usually below 150 µg/L) |
Lead’s Effects | Summary | |
---|---|---|
Metabolic and Genetic Effects | Impairs multiple biochemical processes | |
Interacts with biological molecules | ||
Reduces the activity of various enzymes | ||
Causes oxidative stress | ||
Causes gene expression alterations | ||
Inhibits the enzyme ferrochelatase | ||
Can causes rapid depletion of antioxidants in the body | ||
Can increase the production of reactive oxygen, as well as reactive forms of nitrogen | ||
Location of Lead in the Body | Most lead is stored in the bones | |
Bone-to-blood lead mobilization increases during advanced age | ||
Calcium deficiency is exacerbated, bone-to-blood lead mobilization | ||
Children | Adversely affects the central nervous system and development of children | |
Can interfere with the ability to learn, impair memory, lower IQ and interfere with growth and development | ||
Can affect speech and hearing, cause hyperactivity, nerve conduction, intestinal discomfort, constipation | ||
Vomiting, weight loss muscle aches | ||
Can lead to anemia, nephropathy, paralysis, convulsions or death | ||
Damage can begin as early as pregnancy | ||
Increases the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight and underdeveloped children | ||
Children are lead exposed via inhalation and ingestion | ||
Increased risk occurs in families where one parent works in an environment where high levels of lead are present | ||
Adults | Can result in serious morphological and functional changes in some organs | |
Can cause changes in the nervous system, the circulatory system, the gastrointestinal system | ||
Hormonal, astringency of the mouth, metallic taste in the mouth, and thirst or death | ||
Affects myocytes of the muscular layer of blood vessels | ||
Can result in an increase in blood pressure (not firmly established) | ||
Can adversely affect blood and the metabolism of blood cells | ||
Can have adverse effects on the nervous system, fertility, miscarriages |
Food Product | Threshold Content (mg/kg Fresh Matter) |
---|---|
Milk | 0.02 |
Meat (bovine animals, sheep, pig, poultry) | 0.1 |
Offal (bovine animals, sheep, pig, poultry) | 0.5 |
Fish | 0.3 |
Cereal | 0.2 |
Vegetable (leaf, fresh herbs, fungi, seaweed) | 0.1–0.3 |
Potatoes | 0.1 |
Fruits | 0.1–0.2 |
Fat and oil | 0.1 |
Honey | 0.1 |
Drinking water | 0.1* |
Lead’s Exposure | Summary |
---|---|
In the environment | Poland has the richest Pb deposits in Europe |
Pb has been widely used since the 12th Century | |
Lead in gasoline was a major pollutant for much of the 20th Century | |
The south-west regions of the country are the most polluted, caused by higher levels of industrial activity and transboundary transport | |
The most polluted air occurs in the vicinity of mines and metalworks | |
Pb generally ranks first as a pollutant in waste management, second in industries burning coal, and third in road transport | |
The work environment is a significant source of Pb exposure | |
In paints | Present in paints manufactured before 1978 |
Can still be found on many painted surfaces in older homes | |
Repainting and renovations can create a serious problem with lead dust | |
Old lead paint can contaminate the soil | |
In food | Nearly all agricultural soils are characterized by some natural Pb |
Lead absorption by plants depends on the properties of the soil, the characteristic features of the species and the physiological state of the plant | |
An important source of contamination of food products can be technological processes and devices used in food production | |
Pb contamination depends on the infrastructure of the area and industry |
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Share and Cite
Charkiewicz, A.E.; Backstrand, J.R. Lead Toxicity and Pollution in Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 4385. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124385
Charkiewicz AE, Backstrand JR. Lead Toxicity and Pollution in Poland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(12):4385. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124385
Chicago/Turabian StyleCharkiewicz, Angelika Edyta, and Jeffrey R. Backstrand. 2020. "Lead Toxicity and Pollution in Poland" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 12: 4385. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124385