Perceived Threat of COVID-19 Contagion and Frontline Paramedics’ Agonistic Behaviour: Employing a Stressor–Strain–Outcome Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Support and Conceptualisation
2.1. Theory of Agonistic Behaviour
2.2. SSO Perspective
3. Research Model and Hypotheses Development
3.1. Perceived Threat of COVID-19
3.2. Physiological Anxiety
3.3. Depression
3.4. Emotional Exhaustion
3.5. The Moderating Role of Perceived Social Support
4. Material and Method
4.1. Context Selection
4.2. Construct Operationalisation
4.2.1. Perceived Threat of COVID-19
4.2.2. Physiological Anxiety (PA)
4.2.3. Depression (DP)
4.2.4. Emotional Exhaustion (EE)
4.2.5. Perceived Social Support (PSS)
4.2.6. Agonistic Behaviour (AB)
4.3. Data Collection, Sampling, and Analysis Procedure
5. Results
5.1. Participants’ Demographics
5.2. The Empirical Results of the Measurement Model
5.2.1. Reliability and Convergent Validity
5.2.2. Discriminant Validity
5.3. The Empirical Results of the Structural Model
5.4. The Moderating Role of Perceived Social Support
5.5. Common Method Bias and Multicollinearity
6. Discussion
7. Implications, Limitations, and Research Directions
7.1. Theoretical Implications
7.2. Practical Implications
7.3. Limitations and Research Directions
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A: Survey Items
- Perceived Emotional Threat
- “How much does COVID-19 affect your life?”
- “How much do you feel symptoms COVID-19 contagion?”
- “How concerned are you about COVID-19 contagion?”
- “How much does your threat of illness from COVID-19 affect you emotionally? (e.g., does it make you angry, scared, upset or depressed)”
- Perceived Cognitive Threat
- “How long do you think COVID-19 will continue?”
- “How much control do you feel over COVID-19 contagion?”
- “How much do you think that current treatment is helpful from the recovery of COVID-19 contagion?”
- “How well do you feel you understand COVID-19?”
- Physiological Anxiety
- “I picture some future misfortune.”
- “I cannot get some thoughts out of my mind.”
- “I abide on mistakes that I have made.”
- “I think about possible misfortunes to my loved ones.”
- “I cannot concentrate on a task or job without irrelevant thoughts intruding.”
- “I keep trying to avoid uncomfortable thoughts.”
- “I cannot get some pictures or images out of my mind.”
- “I imagine myself appearing foolish with a person whose opinion of me is important.”
- “I am concerned that others might not think well of me.”
- “I have to be careful not to let my real feelings show.”
- “I have an uneasy feeling.”
- Depression
- How often was this happen during the past 10 days:
- “you were bothered by things that usually do not bother you?”
- “you did not feel like eating, and your passion was poor?”
- “you felt that you could not shake the blues, even with help from family and friends?”
- “you felt that you were just as good as other people?”
- “you had trouble keeping your mind on what you were doing?”
- “you felt depressed?”
- “you felt that you were too tired to do things?”
- “you felt hopeful about the future?”
- “you thought your life had been a failure?”
- “you felt fearful?”
- “you were happy?”
- “you talked less than usual?”
- “you felt lonely?”
- “people were unfriendly to you?”
- “you enjoyed life?”
- “you felt sad?”
- “you felt that people disliked you?”
- “it was hard to get started doing things?”
- “you felt life was not worth living?”
- Emotional Exhaustion
- “It is hard for me to relax after dealing with COVID-19 patients.”
- “If others speak to me, I will sometimes give an errant reply.”
- “I mostly feel annoyed while dealing with COVID-19 patients.”
- “I sometimes act aggressively, although I do not want to do so. “
- “I feel irritable after dealing with COVID-19 patients for hours.”
- “I feel emotionally drained sometimes.”
- “I feel used up at the end of my work.”
- “I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and being confronted with news of COVID-19 patients.”
- “I feel burned out from dealing with COVID-19 patients. “
- “I feel frustrated after work.”
- “I fell, I am working with COVID-19 patients for too long.”
- “Dealing with COVID-19 patients puts too much stress on me.”
- Perceived Social Support
- “How much do you feel that adults care about you?”
- “How much do you feel that your employer care about you?”
- “How much do you feel that your parents care about you?”
- “How much do you feel that your friends care about you?”
- “How much do you feel that people in your family understand you?”
- “How much do you feel that you want to leave home?” (deleted)
- “How much do you feel that you and your family have fun together during a current pandemic?”
- “How much do you feel that your family pays extra attention to you during a current pandemic?”
- Agonistic Behaviour
- “How often did you feel, you were too aggressive toward other people during the past 10 days?”
- “How often did you feel, you influence other people too much to get what you want during the past 10 days?”
- “How often did you feel, not at all aggressive-aggressive during the past 10 days?”
- “How often did you feel, you like people to be afraid of you during the past 10 days?”
- “How often did you feel, you try to get into a position of authority during the past 10 days?”
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Category | Frequency | % Age | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Men | 133 | 38.6 |
Women | 212 | 61.4 | |
Total | 345 | 100.0 | |
Age | 20 to 29 years | 63 | 18.3 |
30 to 39 years | 136 | 39.4 | |
40 to 49 years | 140 | 40.6 | |
Over 50 years | 06 | 1.7 | |
Total | 345 | 100.0 | |
Work experience | 1 to 3 years | 72 | 20.9 |
4 to 6 years | 87 | 25.2 | |
7 to 9 years | 90 | 26.1 | |
Above 10 years | 96 | 27.8 | |
Total | 345 | 100.0 |
Constructs | Cronbach’s Alpha | rho_A | CR | AVE |
---|---|---|---|---|
AB | 0.945 | 0.946 | 0.958 | 0.819 |
DP | 0.974 | 0.975 | 0.976 | 0.684 |
EE | 0.961 | 0.962 | 0.966 | 0.703 |
PA | 0.967 | 0.968 | 0.970 | 0.749 |
PCT | 0.946 | 0.947 | 0.961 | 0.861 |
PET | 0.936 | 0.939 | 0.955 | 0.840 |
PSS | 0.934 | 0.935 | 0.947 | 0.718 |
Constructs | AB | DP | EE | PA | PCT | PET | PSS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AB | 0.905 | ||||||
DP | 0.531 | 0.827 | |||||
EE | 0.539 | 0.639 | 0.838 | ||||
PA | 0.513 | 0.611 | 0.560 | 0.866 | |||
PCT | 0.333 | 0.364 | 0.384 | 0.382 | 0.928 | ||
PET | 0.364 | 0.368 | 0.393 | 0.404 | 0.705 | 0.917 | |
PSS | −0.254 | −0.178 | −0.275 | −0.104 | 0.014 | −0.032 | 0.847 |
Items | AB | DP | EE | PA | PCT | PET | PSS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AB1 | 0.899 | 0.480 | 0.458 | 0.464 | 0.293 | 0.312 | −0.215 |
AB2 | 0.921 | 0.491 | 0.561 | 0.473 | 0.329 | 0.331 | −0.245 |
AB3 | 0.926 | 0.476 | 0.532 | 0.474 | 0.297 | 0.321 | −0.233 |
AB4 | 0.914 | 0.476 | 0.453 | 0.459 | 0.307 | 0.355 | −0.230 |
AB5 | 0.863 | 0.480 | 0.424 | 0.450 | 0.276 | 0.330 | −0.222 |
DP1 | 0.409 | 0.775 | 0.453 | 0.544 | 0.260 | 0.268 | −0.090 |
DP2 | 0.444 | 0.857 | 0.508 | 0.556 | 0.268 | 0.293 | −0.110 |
DP3 | 0.435 | 0.843 | 0.535 | 0.514 | 0.266 | 0.252 | −0.149 |
DP4 | 0.464 | 0.862 | 0.503 | 0.543 | 0.326 | 0.328 | −0.114 |
DP5 | 0.486 | 0.843 | 0.551 | 0.552 | 0.338 | 0.326 | −0.180 |
DP6 | 0.454 | 0.858 | 0.506 | 0.544 | 0.337 | 0.350 | −0.143 |
DP7 | 0.438 | 0.825 | 0.506 | 0.527 | 0.261 | 0.275 | −0.147 |
DP8 | 0.460 | 0.816 | 0.498 | 0.523 | 0.322 | 0.316 | −0.140 |
DP9 | 0.473 | 0.845 | 0.557 | 0.504 | 0.352 | 0.360 | −0.184 |
DP10 | 0.482 | 0.776 | 0.540 | 0.459 | 0.317 | 0.305 | −0.211 |
DP11 | 0.469 | 0.804 | 0.579 | 0.467 | 0.294 | 0.328 | −0.137 |
DP12 | 0.416 | 0.837 | 0.559 | 0.478 | 0.332 | 0.315 | −0.137 |
DP13 | 0.410 | 0.855 | 0.536 | 0.511 | 0.290 | 0.256 | −0.115 |
DP14 | 0.369 | 0.786 | 0.499 | 0.426 | 0.239 | 0.233 | −0.071 |
DP15 | 0.434 | 0.814 | 0.548 | 0.465 | 0.263 | 0.287 | −0.172 |
DP16 | 0.410 | 0.846 | 0.549 | 0.483 | 0.336 | 0.334 | −0.178 |
DP17 | 0.415 | 0.857 | 0.526 | 0.510 | 0.293 | 0.315 | −0.170 |
DP18 | 0.436 | 0.818 | 0.562 | 0.476 | 0.335 | 0.342 | −0.165 |
DP19 | 0.408 | 0.790 | 0.519 | 0.504 | 0.259 | 0.256 | −0.154 |
EE1 | 0.432 | 0.615 | 0.786 | 0.469 | 0.281 | 0.310 | −0.269 |
EE2 | 0.447 | 0.572 | 0.791 | 0.486 | 0.258 | 0.305 | −0.287 |
EE3 | 0.422 | 0.555 | 0.842 | 0.468 | 0.306 | 0.309 | −0.250 |
EE4 | 0.450 | 0.521 | 0.861 | 0.484 | 0.307 | 0.306 | −0.254 |
EE5 | 0.429 | 0.557 | 0.854 | 0.477 | 0.354 | 0.319 | −0.213 |
EE6 | 0.498 | 0.583 | 0.870 | 0.474 | 0.356 | 0.362 | −0.275 |
EE7 | 0.451 | 0.566 | 0.882 | 0.464 | 0.348 | 0.353 | −0.243 |
EE8 | 0.420 | 0.498 | 0.831 | 0.405 | 0.334 | 0.334 | −0.182 |
EE9 | 0.471 | 0.558 | 0.902 | 0.452 | 0.338 | 0.362 | −0.273 |
EE10 | 0.461 | 0.511 | 0.833 | 0.500 | 0.346 | 0.385 | −0.218 |
EE11 | 0.484 | 0.456 | 0.816 | 0.508 | 0.310 | 0.307 | −0.148 |
EE12 | 0.450 | 0.444 | 0.785 | 0.442 | 0.309 | 0.286 | −0.158 |
PA1 | 0.425 | 0.510 | 0.507 | 0.836 | 0.362 | 0.348 | −0.126 |
PA2 | 0.413 | 0.537 | 0.500 | 0.847 | 0.343 | 0.332 | −0.082 |
PA3 | 0.423 | 0.497 | 0.448 | 0.862 | 0.322 | 0.366 | −0.079 |
PA4 | 0.487 | 0.571 | 0.493 | 0.881 | 0.347 | 0.369 | −0.111 |
PA5 | 0.497 | 0.544 | 0.484 | 0.886 | 0.367 | 0.379 | −0.122 |
PA6 | 0.420 | 0.503 | 0.497 | 0.880 | 0.356 | 0.387 | −0.064 |
PA7 | 0.443 | 0.575 | 0.485 | 0.887 | 0.362 | 0.361 | −0.030 |
PA8 | 0.456 | 0.510 | 0.483 | 0.885 | 0.326 | 0.350 | −0.048 |
PA9 | 0.436 | 0.534 | 0.496 | 0.842 | 0.296 | 0.336 | −0.111 |
PA10 | 0.456 | 0.518 | 0.479 | 0.866 | 0.278 | 0.318 | −0.070 |
PA11 | 0.418 | 0.513 | 0.458 | 0.850 | 0.271 | 0.290 | −0.147 |
PCT1 | 0.320 | 0.361 | 0.334 | 0.359 | 0.935 | 0.664 | 0.025 |
PCT2 | 0.306 | 0.314 | 0.355 | 0.327 | 0.928 | 0.690 | −0.005 |
PCT3 | 0.322 | 0.320 | 0.368 | 0.357 | 0.923 | 0.601 | −0.013 |
PCT4 | 0.287 | 0.356 | 0.366 | 0.374 | 0.927 | 0.663 | 0.043 |
PET1 | 0.337 | 0.324 | 0.356 | 0.350 | 0.632 | 0.931 | −0.043 |
PET2 | 0.365 | 0.361 | 0.361 | 0.373 | 0.644 | 0.939 | −0.062 |
PET3 | 0.313 | 0.348 | 0.388 | 0.391 | 0.631 | 0.932 | −0.057 |
PET4 | 0.320 | 0.314 | 0.333 | 0.365 | 0.681 | 0.861 | 0.051 |
PSS1 | −0.206 | −0.130 | −0.245 | −0.097 | −0.003 | −0.026 | 0.909 |
PSS2 | −0.222 | −0.109 | −0.237 | −0.086 | −0.032 | −0.083 | 0.755 |
PSS3 | −0.207 | −0.191 | −0.255 | −0.090 | 0.015 | −0.009 | 0.860 |
PSS4 | −0.211 | −0.176 | −0.244 | −0.082 | 0.006 | −0.041 | 0.853 |
PSS5 | −0.194 | −0.128 | −0.197 | −0.081 | 0.039 | −0.019 | 0.839 |
PSS7 | −0.219 | −0.157 | −0.232 | −0.103 | 0.064 | 0.005 | 0.856 |
PSS8 | −0.237 | −0.161 | −0.220 | −0.073 | −0.003 | −0.016 | 0.852 |
Constructs | AB | DP | EE | PA | PCT | PET | PSS |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AB | |||||||
DP | 0.552 | ||||||
EE | 0.563 | 0.661 | |||||
PA | 0.536 | 0.628 | 0.581 | ||||
PCT | 0.351 | 0.376 | 0.401 | 0.398 | |||
PET | 0.388 | 0.382 | 0.413 | 0.423 | 0.751 | ||
PSS | 0.269 | 0.184 | 0.290 | 0.109 | 0.041 | 0.065 |
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Shahzad, F.; Du, J.; Khan, I.; Fateh, A.; Shahbaz, M.; Abbas, A.; Wattoo, M.U. Perceived Threat of COVID-19 Contagion and Frontline Paramedics’ Agonistic Behaviour: Employing a Stressor–Strain–Outcome Perspective. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 5102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145102
Shahzad F, Du J, Khan I, Fateh A, Shahbaz M, Abbas A, Wattoo MU. Perceived Threat of COVID-19 Contagion and Frontline Paramedics’ Agonistic Behaviour: Employing a Stressor–Strain–Outcome Perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(14):5102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145102
Chicago/Turabian StyleShahzad, Fakhar, Jianguo Du, Imran Khan, Adnan Fateh, Muhammad Shahbaz, Adnan Abbas, and Muhammad Umair Wattoo. 2020. "Perceived Threat of COVID-19 Contagion and Frontline Paramedics’ Agonistic Behaviour: Employing a Stressor–Strain–Outcome Perspective" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 14: 5102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145102