Food System Transformation: Integrating a Political–Economy and Social–Ecological Approach to Regime Shifts
Abstract
:1. Introduction: The Need for Transformation of the Global Food System
2. Two Conceptualizations of Food Regime Shifts
2.1. A Political–Economy Framing of Food Regimes
2.2. Social–Ecological Regime Shifts in the Food System
3. The role of Innovation in Regime Shifts
Transformative Social–Ecological Innovation
4. Three Examples of Food System Innovations Linked to Regime Shifts
4.1. Regime Shift 1: From Labor-Intensive Subsistence Agriculture to Commercial-Industrial Agriculture that could Feed Growing Cities: the Haber-Bosch Process to Produce Fertilisers and Subsequent Intensification Technologies
4.2. Regime Shift 2: From Local Traders to the Convenience of Global Supply Chains: the Establishment of Supermarkets and Fast Food Restaurants as Conventional Sites of Food Procurement
4.3. Regime Shift 3: From Anonymous Global Supply Chains to Alternative Food Networks: the Rise of Corporate Responses to the Call for Increased Transparency
5. Quality, Taste, Cuisine, and the Role of Chefs as Social Innovators: Precursors for a Future Regime Shift
6. Concluding Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gordon, L.J.; Bignet, V.; Crona, B.; Hendriksson, P.G.J.; Van Holt, T.; Malin, J.; Lindahl, T. Rewiring food systems to enhance human health and biosphere stewardship. Envrionmental Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 100201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beddington, J.R.; Asaduzzaman, M.; Clark, M.; Fernández, A.; Guillou, M.; Jahn, M.M.; Erda, L.; Mamo, T.; Van Bo, N.; Nobre, C.A.; et al. Achieving Food Security in the Face of Climate Change: Final Report from the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change; CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS): Copenhagen, Denmark, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP. WHO The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- FAO; IFAD; UNICEF; WFP. WHO The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019: Safeguarding Against Economic Slowdowns and Downturns; Development Initiatives: Rome, Italy, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Development Initiatives. Global Nutrition Report 2017: Nourishing the SDGs; Development Initiatives: Bristol, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Cordain, L.; Eaton, S.B.; Sebastian, A.; Mann, N.; Lindeberg, S.; Watkins, B.A.; O’Keefe, J.H.; Brand-Miller, J. Origins and evolution of the Western diet: Health implications for the 21st century. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81, 341–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- WHO Obesity and Overweight Fact Sheet 11; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
- Hawkes, C. Uneven dietary development: Linking the policies and processes of globalization with the nutrition transition, obesity and diet-related chronic diseases. Global. Health 2006, 2, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kastner, T.; Rivas, M.J.I.; Koch, W.; Nonhebel, S. Global changes in diets and the consequences for land requirements for food. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 6868–6872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Willett, W.; Rockström, J.; Loken, B.; Springmann, M.; Lang, T.; Vermeulen, S.; Garnett, T.; Tilman, D.; DeClerck, F.; Wood, A.; et al. Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Lancet 2019, 6736, 3–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IPCC Summary for Policymakers. In Climate Change and Land: An IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems; Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Buendia, E.C.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.C.; Zhai, P.; Slade, R.; Connors, S.; Diemen, R.; et al. (Eds.) Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Lester, S.E.; Stevens, J.M.; Gentry, R.R.; Kappel, C.V.; Bell, T.W.; Costello, C.J.; Gaines, S.D.; Kiefer, D.A.; Maue, C.C.; Rensel, J.E.; et al. Marine spatial planning makes room for offshore aquaculture in crowded coastal waters. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Worm, B. Averting a global fisheries disaster. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 4895–4897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- IPES-Food. Food from Uniformity to Diversity: A Paradigm Shift from Industrial Agriculture to Diversified Agroecological Systems; IPES-Food: Brussels, Belgium, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Pereira, L.M.; Wynberg, R.; Reis, Y. Agroecology: The Future of Sustainable Farming? Environ. Sci. Policy Sustain. Dev. 2018, 60, 4–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vermeulen, S.J.; Campbell, B.M.; Ingram, J.S.I. Climate Change and Food Systems. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2012, 37, 195–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lotz-Sisitka, H.; Wals, A.E.J.; Kronlid, D.; McGarry, D. Transformative, transgressive social learning: Rethinking higher education pedagogy in times of systemic global dysfunction. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2015, 16, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Friedmann, H.; McMichael, P. Agriculture and the State System: The rise and decline of national agricultures, 1870 to the present. Sociol. Ruralis 1989, 29, 93–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biggs, R.; Blenckner, T.; Folke, C.; Gordon, L.; Peterson, G.D. Regime Shifts. In Encyclopedia of Theoretical Ecology; University of California Press: Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2012; pp. 609–617. [Google Scholar]
- McMichael, P. A food regime genealogy. J. Peasant Stud. 2009, 36, 139–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McMichael, P. A food regime analysis of the ‘world food crisis’. Agric. Human Values 2009, 26, 281–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Friedmann, H. From Colonialism to Green Capitalism: Social Movements and Emergence of Food Regimes. Res. Rural Sociol. Dev. 2005, 11, 227–264. [Google Scholar]
- Patel, R. Stuffed and Starved: From Farm to fork, the Hidden Battle for the Wold Food System; Portobello Books Ltd.: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Haysom, G. Urban-scale food system governance: An alternative response to the dominant paradigm? In Untamed Urbanisms; Routledge: London, UK, 2015; pp. 76–87. ISBN 9781317599098. [Google Scholar]
- Peyton, S.; Moseley, W.; Battersby, J. Implications of supermarket expansion on urban food security in Cape Town, South Africa. Afr. Geogr. Rev. 2015, 34, 36–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Battersby, J.; Peyton, S. The Spatial Logic of Supermarket Expansion and Food Access. In Rapid Urbanisation, Urban Food Deserts and Food Security in Africa; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Germany, 2016; pp. 33–46. [Google Scholar]
- Dixon, J. From the imperial to the empty calorie: How nutrition relations underpin food regime transitions. Agric. Human Values 2009, 26, 321–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popkin, B.M.; Adair, L.S.; Ng, S.W. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr. Rev. 2012, 70, 3–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Wrigley, N. “Food deserts” in British cities: Policy context and research priorities. Urban Stud. 2002, 39, 2029–2040. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morton, L.W.; Blanchard, T.C. Starved for Access: Life in Rural America’s Food Deserts. Rural Realities 2007, 1, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Walker, R.E.; Keane, C.R.; Burke, J.G. Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature. Health Place 2010, 16, 876–884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Battersby, J. Beyond the Food Desert: Finding ways to speak about urban food security in South Africa. Geogr. Ann. Ser. B Hum. Geogr. 2012, 94, 141–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Battersby, J.; Crush, J. Africa’s Urban Food Deserts. Urban Forum 2014, 25, 143–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shannon, J. Food deserts: Governing obesity in the neoliberal city. Prog. Hum. Geogr. 2014, 38, 248–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Widener, M.J.; Shannon, J. When are food deserts? Integrating time into research on food accessibility. Health Place 2014, 30, 1–3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Campbell, H. Breaking new ground in food regime theory: Corporate environmentalism, ecological feedbacks and the ‘food from somewhere’ regime? Agric. Human Values 2009, 26, 309–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Folke, C. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2006, 16, 253–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ericksen, P.J. Conceptualizing food systems for global environmental change research. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2008, 18, 234–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis; Island Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Díaz, S.; Settele, J.; Brondizio, E.S.; Ngo, H.T.; Agard, J.; Arneth, A.; Balvanera, P.; Brauman, K.A.; Butchart, S.H.M.; Chan, K.M.A.; et al. Pervasive human-driven decline of life on Earth points to the need for transformative change. Science 2019, 13, 366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- IPBES. The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services; IPBES: Bonn, Germany, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Holling, C.S. Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1973, 4, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Biggs, R.; Schlüter, M.; Schoon, M.L. Principles for Building Resilience: Sustaining Ecosystem Services in Social-Ecological Systems; Biggs, R., Schlüter, M., Schoon, M.L., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2015; ISBN 1316299929. [Google Scholar]
- Folke, C.; Biggs, R.; Norström, A.V.; Reyers, B.; Rockström, J. Social-ecological resilience and biosphere-based sustainability science. Ecol. Soc. 2016, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moore, M.-L.; Olsson, P.; Nilsson, W.; Rose, L.; Westley, F.R. Navigating emergence and system reflexivity as key transformative capacities: Experiences from a Global Fellowship program. Ecol. Soc. 2018, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olsson, P. Synthesis: Agency and opportunity. In The Evolution of Social Innovation. Building Resilience through Transitions; Westley, F.R., McGowan, K., Tjornbo, O., Eds.; Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Westley, F.; Olsson, P.; Folke, C.; Homer-Dixon, T.; Vredenburg, H.; Loorbach, D.; Thompson, J.; Nilsson, M.; Lambin, E.; Sendzimir, J.; et al. Tipping Toward Sustainability: Emerging Pathways of Transformation. Ambio 2011, 40, 762–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Westley, F. Social Innovation and Resilience: How One Enhances the Other. Stanford Soc. Innov. Rev. 2013, 11, 6–8. [Google Scholar]
- Westley, F.R.; Tjornbo, O.; Schultz, L.; Olsson, P.; Folke, C.; Crona, B.; Bodin, Ö. A theory of transformative agency in linked social-ecological systems. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stirling, A.C.; Scoones, I.; Abrol, D.; Atela, J.; Charli-Joseph, L.; Eakin, H.; Ely, A.; Olsson, P.; Pereira, L.M.; Priya, R.; et al. Transformations to Sustainability: Combining structural, systemic and enabling approaches. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Olsson, P.; Galaz, V. Social-ecological innovation and transformation. In Social Innovation: Blurring Boundaries to Reconfigure Markets; Nicholls, A., Murdock, A., Eds.; Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Leach, M.; Stirling, A.C.; Scoones, I. Dynamic Sustainabilities; Routledge: London, UK, 2010; ISBN 9781849775069. [Google Scholar]
- Olsson, P.; Galaz, V.; Boonstra, W.J. Sustainability transformations: A resilience perspective. Ecol. Soc. 2014, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Godfray, H.C.J.; Beddington, J.R.; Crute, I.R.; Haddad, L.; Lawrence, D.; Muir, J.F.; Pretty, J.; Robinson, S.; Thomas, S.M.; Toulmin, C. Food Security: The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science 2010, 327, 812–818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nestle, M. Unsavoury Truth: How Food Companies Skew the Science of What We Eat; Basic Books: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Nestle, M. Food Politics; Unviersity of California Press: Berkeley/Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Nestle, M. Big Food, Food Systems, and Global Health. PLoS Med. 2012, 9, e1001242. [Google Scholar]
- Battersby, J.; Peyton, S. The Geography of Supermarkets in Cape Town: Supermarket Expansion and Food Access. Urban Forum 2014, 25, 153–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ingram, J. A food systems approach to researching food security and its interactions with global environmental change. Food Secur. 2011, 3, 417–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pingali, P.L. Green Revolution: Impacts, limits, and the path ahead. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 12302–12308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Olsson, P.; Galaz, V. Social-Ecological Innovation and Transformation. In Social Innovation; Nicholls, A., Murdock, A., Eds.; Palgrave Macmillan: Basingstoke, UK, 2011; p. 25. [Google Scholar]
- Schäpke, N.; Stelzer, F.; Caniglia, G.; Bergmann, M.; Wanner, M.; Singer-Brodowski, M.; Loorbach, D.; Olsson, P.; Baedeker, C.; Lang, D.J. Jointly Experimenting for Transformation? Shaping Real-World Laboratories by Comparing Them. GAIA Ecol. Perspect. Sci. Soc. 2018, 27, 85–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geels, F.W.; Schot, J. Typology of sociotechnical transition pathways. Res. Policy 2007, 36, 399–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geels, F.W. Ontologies, socio-technical transitions (to sustainability), and the multi-level perspective. Res. Policy 2010, 39, 495–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pereira, L.M.; Bennett, E.M.; Biggs, R.O.; Peterson, G.D.; McPhearson, T.; Norström, A.V.; Olsson, P.; Preiser, R.; Raudsepp-Hearne, C.; Vervoort, J.M. Seeds of the future in the present: Exploring pathways for navigating towards “Good Anthropocenes”. In Urban Planet; Elmqvist, T., Bai, X., Frantzeskaki, N., Griffith, C., Maddox, D., McPhearson, T., Parnell, S., Roberts, D., Romero Lankao, P., Simon, D., et al., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2018; ISBN 9781107196933. [Google Scholar]
- Gelcich, S.; Hughes, T.P.; Olsson, P.; Folke, C.; Defeo, O.; Fernández, M.; Foale, S.; Gunderson, L.H.; Rodríguez-Sickert, C.; Scheffer, M.; et al. Navigating transformations in governance of Chilean marine coastal resources. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 16794–16799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Von Braun, J.; Diaz-Bonilla, E. Globalisation of Food and Agriculture and the Poor; Oxford University Press: New Delhi, India, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- IPES-Food. Too Big to Feed; IPES-Food: Brussels, Belgium, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Rosenberg, E. A World Connecting: 1870–1945; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Fukuyama, F. Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalisation of Democracy; Profile Books: London, UK, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Galloway, J.N.; Cowling, E.B. Reactive Nitrogen and the World: 200 Years of Change. Ambio 2002, 31, 64–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mosier, A.; Syers, J.; Freney, J. Agriculture and the Nitrogen Cycle. Assessing the Impacts of Fertilizer Use on Food Production and the Environment; Island Press: London, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Murphy, S.; Burch, D.; Clapp, J. Cereal Secrets: The World’s Largest Grain Traders and Global Agriculture; Oxfam Research Reports; Oxfam: Oxford, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Friedmann, H. After Midas’s feast. In Food for the Future: Conditions, Contradictions of Sustainability; Allen, P., Ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1993. [Google Scholar]
- Weatherspoon, D.R.D.; Reardon, T. Supermarkets in Africa: Implications for Agrifood systems and the rural poor. Dev. Policy Rev. 2003, 2, 1–17. [Google Scholar]
- Reardon, T.; Timmer, C.P.; Berdegue, J.; Barrett, C.B. The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 2003, 83, 1140–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reardon, T.; Hopkins, R. The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers. Eur. J. Dev. Res. 2006, 18, 522–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burch, D.; Lawrence, G. Supermarkets and Agri-food Supply Chains: Transformations in the Production and Consumption of Foods; Burch, D., Lawrence, G., Eds.; Edward Elgar: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Shaw, G. Transferring a Retail Innovation: The early stages of Supermarket Development in Post-war Britain. In Economic History Yearbook; Verlag De Gruyter Oldenbourg: Berlin, Germany, 2005; pp. 57–70. [Google Scholar]
- Schumpeter, J. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy; Allen and Unwin: London, UK, 1943. [Google Scholar]
- Reardon, T.; Barrett, C.B.; Berdegue, J.A.; Berdegué, J.A.; Swinnen, J.F.M. Agrifood Industry Transformation and Small Farmers in Developing Countries. World Dev. 2009, 37, 1717–1727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schlosser, E. Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal; Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: New York, NY, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Pollan, M. The Omnivore’s Dilemma: The Search for a Perfect Meal in a Fast-Food World; Bloomsbury: London, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Lang, T.; Heasman, M. Food Wars: The Global Battle for Mouths, Minds and Markets; Earthscan: Oxford, UK, 2004; ISBN 1853837016. [Google Scholar]
- Campbell, H. Consultation, commerce and contemporary agri-food systems: Ethical engagement of new systems of governance under reflexive modernity. Integr. Assess. J. 2006, 6, 117–136. [Google Scholar]
- Campbell, H. The rise and rise of EurepGAP: The European (re)invention of colonial food relations? Int. J. Sociol. Agric. Food 2005, 13, 6–19. [Google Scholar]
- Goodman, D. Place and Space in Alternative Food Networks: Connecting Production and Consumption; King’s College: London, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Paoli, G.D.; Yaap, B.; Wells, P.L.; Sileuw, A. Opinion Article CSR, Oil Palm and the RSPO: Translating boardroom philosophy into conservation action on the ground. Trop. Conserv. Sci. 2010, 3, 438–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ruysschaert, D.; Salles, D. The strategies and effectiveness of conservation ngos in the global voluntary standards: The case of the roundtable on sustainable palm-oil. Conserv. Soc. 2016, 14, 73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valkila, J.; Nygren, A. Impacts of Fair Trade certification on coffee farmers, cooperatives, and laborers in Nicaragua. Agric. Hum. Values 2010, 27, 321–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ibanez, M.; Blackman, A. Is Eco-Certification a Win–Win for Developing Country Agriculture? Organic Coffee Certification in Colombia. World Dev. 2016, 82, 14–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Markey, E. Bread and Beer for a Better Biosphere: The Transformative Potential of the Eco-gastronomic niche in the Greater Cape Town Area. Master’s Thesis, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Stringer, L.C.; Fraser, E.D.; Harris, D.; Lyon, C.; Pereira, L.; Caroline, W.; Simelton, E. Adaptation and Development Pathways for Different Types of Farmers. Environ. Sci. Pol. 2020, 104, 174–190. [Google Scholar]
- Guerrero Lara, L.; Pereira, L.M.; Ravera, F.; Jiménez-Aceituno, A. Flipping the Tortilla: Social-ecological innovations and traditional ecological knowledge for more sustainable agri-food systems in Spain. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vitousek, P.M.; Mooney, H.A.; Lubchenco, J.; Melillo, J.M. Human domination of Earth’s ecosystems. In Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 3–13. [Google Scholar]
- Weiss, B. Configuring the authentic value of real food: Farm-to-fork, snout-to-tail, and local food movements. Am. Ethnol. 2012, 39, 614–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barber, D. The Third Plate: Field Notes on the Future of Food; Little, Brown: London, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Pollan, M. Defense of Food; Penguin: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Pereira, L.M.; Contreras, R.C.; Norström, A.V.; Espinosa, D.; Willis, J.; Lara, L.G.; Khan, Z.; Rusch, L.; Palacios, E.C.; Amaya, O.P. Chefs as change-makers from the kitchen: Indigenous knowledge and traditional food as sustainability innovations. Glob. Sustain. 2019, 2, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pradhan, P.; Costa, L.; Rybski, D.; Lucht, W.; Kropp, J.P. A Systematic Study of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Interactions. Earth’s Futur. 2017, 5, 1169–1179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guthman, J. Agrarian Dreams: The Paradox of Organic Farming in California; University of California Press: Berkeley, CA, USA, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Aliber, M.; Cousins, B. Livelihoods after Land Reform in South Africa. J. Agrar. Chang. 2013, 13, 140–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shisana, O.; Labadarios, D.; Simbayi, L.; Zuma, K.; Dhansay, A.; Reddy, P.; Parker, W.; Hoosain, E.; Naidoo, P.; Hongoro, C.; et al. South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES-1), 2014 ed.; HSRC Press: Cape Town, South Africa, 2014; ISBN 9780796924766. [Google Scholar]
- Igumbor, E.U.; Sanders, D.; Puoane, T.R.; Tsolekile, L.; Schwarz, C. ‘“Big Food,”’ the Consumer Food Environment, Health, and the Policy Response in South Africa. PLoS Med. 2012, 9, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mayosi, B.M.; Flisher, A.J.; Lalloo, U.G.; Sitas, F.; Tollman, S.M.; Bradshaw, D. The burden of non-communicable diseases in South Africa. Lancet 2009, 374, 934–947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hofman, K.J.; Tollman, S.M. Population health in South Africa: A view from the salt mines. Lancet Glob. Health 2013, 1, e66–e67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kimani-Murage, E.W. Exploring the paradox: Double burden of malnutrition in rural South Africa. Glob. Health Action 2013, 6, 19249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carter, S.; Gulati, M. Understanding the Food Energy Water Nexus Climate change, the Food Energy Water Nexus and food security in South Africa; WWF-SA: Cape Town, South Africa, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Sellberg, M.M.; Norström, A.V.; Peterson, G.D.; Gordon, L.J. Using local initiatives to envision sustainable and resilient food systems in the Stockholm city-region. Glob. Food Sec. 2020, 24, 100334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pereira, L.M.; Bennett, E.; Biggs, R.O.; Mangnus, A.; Norström, A.V.; Peterson, G.; Raudsepp-Hearne, C.; Sellberg, M.; Vervoort, J. Seeding Change by Visioning Good Anthropocenes. Solutions 2019, 10. [Google Scholar]
- Bennett, E.M.; Solan, M.; Biggs, R.; McPhearson, T.; Norström, A.V.; Olsson, P.; Pereira, L.; Peterson, G.D.; Raudsepp-Hearne, C.; Biermann, F.; et al. Bright spots: Seeds of a good Anthropocene. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2016, 14, 441–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moore, M.-L.; Riddell, D.; Vocisano, D. Scaling Out, Scaling Up, Scaling Deep: Strategies of Non-profits in Advancing Systemic Social Innovation. J. Corp. Citizsh. 2015, 58, 67–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drimie, S.; Pereira, L. Advances in Food Security and Sustainability in South Africa. In Advances in Food Security and Sustainability; Barling, D., Ed.; Academic Press: Burlington, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 1–31. ISBN 9780128098639. [Google Scholar]
- Zgambo, O.; Pereira, L.; Boatemaa, S.; Drimie, S. T-labs for Alternative Food Systems in the Western Cape; Food Jams, Salt River: Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Cramer, C.; Pereira, L.M.; Drimie, S.; Willis, J.; Kushitor, S. T-lab on Coastal Wild Foods in the Western Cape Report on T-Lab Held 2–3 May 2019; Food Jams, Salt River: Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Mabhaudhi, T.; Chibarabada, T.P.; Chimonyo, V.G.P.; Murugani, V.G.; Pereira, L.M.; Sobratee, N.; Govender, L.; Slotow, R.; Modi, A.T. Mainstreaming underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into food systems: A South African perspective. Sustainability 2018, 11, 172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barthel, S.; Crumley, C.; Svedin, U. Bio-cultural refugia-Safeguarding diversity of practices for food security and biodiversity. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2013, 23, 1142–1152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Barthel, S.; Crumley, C.L.; Svedin, U. Biocultural refugia: Combating the erosion of diversity in landscapes of food production. Ecol. Soc. 2013, 18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barthel, S.; Folke, C.; Colding, J. Social-ecological memory in urban gardens-Retaining the capacity for management of ecosystem services. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2010, 20, 255–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Reyes-García, V.; Olsson, P.; Montes, C. Traditional ecological knowledge and community resilience to environmental extremes: A case study in Doñana, SW Spain. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2012, 22, 640–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mazlish, B. Ruptures in History. Hist. Speak. 2011, 12, 32–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Regime Shift 1: Low-Input Labor-Intensive Farming to Commercial-Industrial Agriculture | Regime Shift 2: Food Procured from a Variety of Local Traders to Food Procured from a Supermarket | Regime Shift 3: From Anonymous Global Supply Chains to Alternative Food Networks | |
---|---|---|---|
Key innovations | Haber-Bosch Process; Green Revolution technologies | Supermarkets; Fast and convenience foods | Certification and labelling; local and Slow Food movements |
Key drivers | Industrial revolution Over-capacity in the manufacture of explosives after World War II Urbanization | Globalization of supply chains; Efficiency of international transport of goods | Consumer demands for transparency in value chain; Rise of ‘alternative food networks’ |
Key feedbacks | Increased agricultural production efficiency; Monoculture farming; Increased dependence on the companies providing inputs | Global expansion of supermarket chains; Disruptive competition; customer demand for variety of products; Cheaper food; Less time and skill spent on cooking | Higher percentage of income being spent on higher quality food; Growth in certification bodies and institutionalized auditing of supply chains; Greater costs to farmers to be enrolled; Support for local and niche food producers to enable their viability |
Key ecological impacts | Increased pressure on land and animal bodies; Decreased agro-biodiversity; Decrease in water and soil quality; Increased emission of Greenhouse gases (GHGs); Loss of pollinators; Eutrophication of lakes and seas from agricultural run-off | Agricultural expansion leading to deforestation in the tropics; Increase in carbon emissions from transporting food around the world ‘food miles’; Increased meat production on feedlots emitting more GHGs and driving expansion of feed crops like soybean; Increased food waste; Reduced post-harvest losses as food is processed | Organic and less input intensive agriculture decreases impact on soils and water; Reduced food waste as food is more expensive; Improved agro-biodiversity |
Key social and health impacts | Increase in calories available per person; Diversification of livelihood options away from agriculture; Shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture | Decrease in health due to increasingly processed and unhealthy foods being easily accessible and affordable; Increase in the variety of foods available; Exploitation of labor and land to meet international demand; Consolidation of food businesses into multinational corporations MNCs; Processing of food enables women to work and spend less time in the kitchen | Increased inequality in who can access good, healthy food; Improved conditions for those producers who can afford certification; Culinary knowledge valued; Improved nutrition for those who can afford better quality food |
Key references | [70,71,72,95] | [57,75,76,78,79,81,82] | [87,88,89,90,91,92,94] |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Pereira, L.M.; Drimie, S.; Maciejewski, K.; Tonissen, P.B.; Biggs, R. Food System Transformation: Integrating a Political–Economy and Social–Ecological Approach to Regime Shifts. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1313. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041313
Pereira LM, Drimie S, Maciejewski K, Tonissen PB, Biggs R. Food System Transformation: Integrating a Political–Economy and Social–Ecological Approach to Regime Shifts. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(4):1313. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041313
Chicago/Turabian StylePereira, Laura M., Scott Drimie, Kristi Maciejewski, Patrick Bon Tonissen, and Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs. 2020. "Food System Transformation: Integrating a Political–Economy and Social–Ecological Approach to Regime Shifts" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 4: 1313. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041313
APA StylePereira, L. M., Drimie, S., Maciejewski, K., Tonissen, P. B., & Biggs, R. (2020). Food System Transformation: Integrating a Political–Economy and Social–Ecological Approach to Regime Shifts. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1313. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041313