How Has the Hazard to Humans of Microorganisms Found in Atmospheric Aerosol in the South of Western Siberia Changed over 10 Years?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- an index that evaluates the pathogenicity or hazard of individual isolates of microorganisms to humans;
- an index that evaluates the resistance of microorganisms to adverse environmental factors;
- an index that evaluates the resistance of microorganisms to antibiotics or other drugs.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Atmospheric Air Sampling
2.2. Culturable Microorganisms’ Concentration
2.3. Microorganisms’ Biochemical and Morphological Characteristics
2.3.1. Pathogenic Properties of the Isolates
- plasma-coagulase activity was determined by placing a loop of the test culture in a test tube with 0.5 mL of rabbit citrate plasma diluted with 0.9% sterile sodium chloride solution and incubating the suspension at 37 °C for up to 24 hours; a positive reaction was determined by plasma coagulation [28];
- hemolytic activity was determined by seeding cultures on nutrient agar containing 5% defibrinated blood and the seeding was incubated at 37 °C for 24–48 hours; a positive result was the presence of hemolysis zones around the grown colonies [59];
- fibrinolytic activity was determined by sowing 0.25 mL of an 18–20-hour broth culture of the test strain in test tubes containing 0.1 mL of citrate plasma, 0.4 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride, 0.25 mL of 0.25% CaCl2 solution; tubes with suspension were kept in an incubator at a temperature of 37 °C for 15–20 minutes; a clot formed in a test tube with a positive reaction (the presence of fibrinolysin) liquefies after the next two hours of incubation in a thermostat; the test culture does not have fibrinolytic properties if the clot persists, as in the control tube, where the culture was not added;
- gelatinase activity was determined by sowing microorganisms by injection in test tubes with meat–peptone broth containing 12% gelatin, kept in an incubator for up to 20 days; a liquefaction of the nutrient medium is noted in the presence of the gelatinase enzyme [57].
2.3.2. Growth Characteristics of Bacteria at Increased Salt Concentration
2.3.3. The Determination of Enzymatic Activity of Isolated Bacteria
- proteolytic activity was determined by plating the studied microorganisms on an agar medium containing milk casein (milk agar); to prepare agar with casein, two components were prepared: 3% “hungry” agar (distilled water + 3% agar), sterilized at 1 atm for 30 minutes, and 12% milk sterilized at 1 atm for 20 minutes; then, agar was cooled to 50–55 °C, mixed with milk heated to the same temperature under aseptic conditions in a 1: 1 ratio, and poured into Petri dishes; after solidification of the medium, cultures were streaked and incubated under optimal conditions; the formation of transparent hydrolysis zones around crops in casein-containing agar indicated protease production [57];
- the amylolytic activity of cultures of microorganisms was determined when they were streaked on starch–ammonia agar; after incubation in a thermostat for 24–48 hours, the grown cultures in the dishes were poured into 5 mL of Lugol’s solution; the appearance of bright areas around crops within 3–5 minutes is a positive result;
- determination of lecithinase and lipase activity was carried out by two methods:
- seeding cultures with a stroke on yolk nutrient agar, for the preparation of which, under aseptic conditions, in yolk of molten and cooled to 50–55 °C fish-peptone agar (FPA) medium, yolk from a chicken egg is introduced; then medium is thoroughly mixed and poured into Petri dishes; the studied culture is streaked, incubated at the required temperature for 24–48 hours and the result is taken into account; when observed in an oblique light, lipase production was judged by the formation of a pearly shiny hydrolysis zone on agar around grown colonies; lecithinase (phospholipase) hydrolyzes the yolk lecithin; as a result of the precipitation reaction, a turbid whitish zone forms around the lecithin-fermenting colonies [57];
- plating cultures on a complete LB or RPA medium with 1% Tween-20 or Tween-40 and 0.01% CaCl2 as a substrate; sown cultures were incubated in a thermostat for 3–4 days and the result of the presence or absence of hydrolysis zones was determined [57];
- testing of cultures for the production of alkaline phosphatase was carried out using a reaction mixture of the composition: 0.3 mL of 0.85% NaCl added to 0.3 mL of substrate solution containing 0.04 M glycine buffer pH 10.5 and 0.01 M disodium-n-nitrophenyl phosphate (Sigma); the reaction mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 3 hours; Positive reaction manifested itself as yellow staining of the reaction mixture [59]; enzyme activity was determined within 3 hours of incubation by absorption on Uniplan apparatus (Russia) with a color filter at the wavelength of 450 nm.
- nuclease activity was determined by streaking cultures on RPA medium with the addition of an aqueous DNA solution to a final concentration of 2 mg/mL; before filling the medium, a sterile solution of CaCl2 (0.8 mg/mL) and 0.01% toluidine blue were added to the Petri dishes; in the case of the formation of DNase, a pink colored zone arose around the bacterial culture [59];
- the concentration of plasmid DNA in the strains was determined with screening method using a standard procedure; cells from a solid medium were suspended with a loop in 100 μl of buffer (50 mM Tris pH 8.0, 50 mM Na2-EDTA, 15% sucrose), 200 μl of alkaline solution (0.2 N NaOH, 1% SDS) and 150 μl of 3 M sodium acetate pH 5.0 were added, and centrifugation was performed for 5 minutes on a desktop centrifuge, then 1 mL of 96% ethanol was added to the sediment. The obtained DNA was analyzed in 0.8 % agarose in Tris-borate buffer pH 8.0 [48];
- when screening the strains for the presence of restriction endonucleases, individual colonies collected from a solid culture were suspended in 100–200 μl of TEN-buffer (0.1 M Tris, pH 7.5, 0.01 M EDTA, 0.05 M NaCl), lysocime and triton X-100 were used to destroy the cell wall of bacteria; the obtained cell extract was used for analysis for the presence of restriction endonucleases. DNAs of phages λcI857 and T7 were used as substrates for hydrolysis; electrophoresis of DNA after restriction was performed in 1% agarose (Sigma) [63]; the presence of restriction endonucleases in microorganism strains was revealed by the appearance of discrete fragments of substrate DNA in electrophoregram in UV light.
2.3.4. Microorganisms’ Antibiotic Resistance
2.4. Changes in the Methods Used in the 2006–2008 and 2012–2016 Studies
- A Tupolev-134 aircraft (Figure 3) was used for sounding of the atmosphere since 2011 [64]. The speed of this aircraft was maintained at the level of the Antonov-30 aircraft to maintain stable operation of the air intake. For sampling air containing microorganisms, the same impingers were used on both airplanes and in on-ground sampling; Figure 4. As noted above, the sampling time for airborne atmospheric sounding was 10 minutes for 2006–2008 and 5 minutes for 2012–2016.
- When analyzing samples by cultural methods in 2012–2016, in addition to the cultivation temperature of 28–30 °C, some isolates were additionally incubated at the temperature of 6–10 °C.
- And the last difference between the methods of samples analysis in the 2006–2008 and 2012–2016 investigations-the lists of antibiotics the sensitivity of isolates to which was determined are slightly different. For 2012–2016, the sensitivity of isolates was determined for a larger number of antibiotics, but this was done for not all identified isolates.
2.5. Data Analysis and Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Long-Term Trends of Average Annual Concentrations of Culturable Microorganisms in the Atmospheric Aerosol of the South of Western Siberia
3.2. Sustainability of Culturable Microorganisms in the Environment
3.3. Potential Pathogenicity of Culturable Microorganisms in the Atmospheric Aerosol of the South of Western Siberia
3.4. Culturable Microorganisms’ Resistance to Antibiotics
3.5. Integral Index
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sampling Site | Values | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vector | Average | 0.359 | 0.372 | 0.324 | 0.247 | 0.244 | 0.135 | 0.252 |
Standard deviation | 0.223 | 0.206 | 0.256 | 0.243 | 0.229 | 0.132 | 0.209 | |
Klyuchi | Average | 0.315 | 0.335 | 0.452 | 0.399 | 0.381 | 0.354 | 0.354 |
Standard deviation | 0.216 | 0.182 | 0.246 | 0.222 | 0.215 | 0.108 | 0.149 | |
Aircraft | Average | 0.307 | 0.399 | 0.567 | 0.380 | 0.415 | 0.405 | 0.431 |
Standard deviation | 0.212 | 0.222 | 0.333 | 0.191 | 0.137 | 0.125 | 0.176 |
Sampling Site | Values | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vector | Average | 0.239 | 0.239 | 0.315 | 0.202 | 0.213 | 0.374 | 0.292 |
Standard deviation | 0.148 | 0.121 | 0.177 | 0.117 | 0.146 | 0.177 | 0.175 | |
Klyuchi | Average | 0.209 | 0.275 | 0.232 | 0.205 | 0.210 | 0.371 | 0.175 |
Standard deviation | 0.132 | 0.139 | 0.187 | 0.138 | 0.134 | 0.197 | 0.175 | |
Aircraft | Average | 0.235 | 0.270 | 0.306 | 0.247 | 0.203 | 0.409 | 0.303 |
Standard deviation | 0.139 | 0.150 | 0.196 | 0.130 | 0.116 | 0.182 | 0.177 |
Sampling Site | Values | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vector | Average | 0.207 | 0.206 | 0.170 | 0.195 | 0.152 |
Standard deviation | 0.181 | 0.129 | 0.173 | 0.208 | 0.107 | |
Klyuchi | Average | 0.262 | 0.245 | 0.265 | 0.239 | 0.144 |
Standard deviation | 0.211 | 0.146 | 0.106 | 0.231 | 0.107 | |
Aircraft | Average | 0.232 | 0.206 | 0.200 | 0.314 | 0.278 |
Standard deviation | 0.184 | 0.149 | 0.188 | 0.319 | 0.207 |
Sampling Site | Values | 2006–2007 | 2007–2008 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vector | Average | 0.0035 | 0.0007 | 0.0001 | 0.0011 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 | 0.0018 |
Standard deviation | 0.0110 | 0.0017 | 0.0002 | 0.0026 | 0.0008 | 0.00015 | 0.0061 | |
Klyuchi | Average | 0.0010 | 0.0047 | 0.0002 | 0.0005 | 0.0001 | 0.0007 | 0.0032 |
Standard deviation | 0.0045 | 0.0109 | 0.0003 | 0.0009 | 0.0002 | 0.0012 | 0.0057 | |
Aircraft | Average | 0.0016 | 0.0019 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0037 | 0.0004 | 0.0018 |
Standard deviation | 0.0034 | 0.0058 | 0.0001 | 0.0001 | 0.0059 | 0.0004 | 0.0024 |
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Safatov, A.; Andreeva, I.; Buryak, G.; Ohlopkova, O.; Olkin, S.; Puchkova, L.; Reznikova, I.; Solovyanova, N.; Belan, B.; Panchenko, M.; et al. How Has the Hazard to Humans of Microorganisms Found in Atmospheric Aerosol in the South of Western Siberia Changed over 10 Years? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051651
Safatov A, Andreeva I, Buryak G, Ohlopkova O, Olkin S, Puchkova L, Reznikova I, Solovyanova N, Belan B, Panchenko M, et al. How Has the Hazard to Humans of Microorganisms Found in Atmospheric Aerosol in the South of Western Siberia Changed over 10 Years? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(5):1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051651
Chicago/Turabian StyleSafatov, Alexandr, Irina Andreeva, Galina Buryak, Olesia Ohlopkova, Sergei Olkin, Larisa Puchkova, Irina Reznikova, Nadezda Solovyanova, Boris Belan, Mikhail Panchenko, and et al. 2020. "How Has the Hazard to Humans of Microorganisms Found in Atmospheric Aerosol in the South of Western Siberia Changed over 10 Years?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 5: 1651. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051651