1. Introduction
Regular physical activity is essential for maintaining health status and reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and metabolic syndrome [
1,
2,
3]. Prolonged physical inactivity can have serious health consequences. It has been estimated that inadequate levels of physical activity were responsible for 8.3% of deaths in the United States and 10.4% of deaths in Europe [
4,
5]. Compared to Western countries, China has experienced a higher rate of decrease in physical activity [
6], and in urban China the situation was even worse—only 7.9% of the urban adults participated in moderate or vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in their leisure time (28.9% for rural adults) [
7,
8]. It is of special concern to promote physical activity among urban residents in China [
9].
Previous research has indicated that environmental factors may influence the rates of physical activity [
10,
11], and living close to urban parks or other green spaces is linked to increased levels of physical activity [
12,
13,
14,
15]. Research has also found that conducting exercise in a green environment is more beneficial than doing the same exercise in an indoor environment [
16]. By visiting urban parks, diverse and significant health benefits can be obtained, such as better sleep, stronger muscles, improved mood, reduced stress, and social contact [
17,
18].
Numerous studies have shown neighborhood parks provide ideal places for physical activity [
19], emphasizing that the presence of or access to nearby nature can contribute to mental and physical health [
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25]. Compared with the large number of studies examining the influence of neighborhood-built environment on park usage [
26,
27], especially the proximity to a park and the surrounding communities [
28,
29,
30], few studies have focused on the specific design features that may influence the park use and the occurrence of physical activity [
31].
Evidence shows that park attributes are related to park usage, that is, a large size, the quality of facilities, organized activities, and good maintenance can promote overall park use [
31,
32,
33]. An observational study of plaza users in San Francisco found that the microclimate conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and sunshine, influenced the behaviors of visitors [
34]. Although these studies suggest that physical activities were influenced by park attributes [
35], little has been learned about the specific landscape components supporting the different types of physical activity. Several recent studies have addressed participants’ visual preference for park features [
36,
37]. As these studies mainly focused on the perspective aspect of landscape components, the space–behavior relationship was not clear for the preferred landscape features.
Behavior mapping is an objective method for linking physical activity and outdoor design, which has been applied in studies of people’s behaviors in urban streets [
38], childcare centers [
39], schools [
40], hospitals [
41], and neighborhood open space [
42]. This method allows researchers to associate the design of behavior settings with physical activity levels among participants. The validated direct observation tools such as the System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities (SOPARC) and the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth (SOPLAY) have been developed to obtain direct information on park users and their physical activity [
40,
43,
44]. Using behavior mapping and geographic information system (GIS)-supported techniques, Goličnik and Ward Thompson analyzed the use patterns and spatial occupancy of three urban parks in Edinburgh and Ljubljana [
45]. Using the SOPARC tool, previous research examined the conditions, user characteristics, and their physical activity in neighborhood parks of the United States at two time points [
46].
The behavior mapping method is based on two theoretical perspectives. The affordance theory emphasizes the relations between perceived properties of the environment and the individual’s possibilities for action; people can perceive the use value of the environment in a direct and immediate way [
47]. The concept of affordance helps the investigators to understand how the varied landscape attributes attract different types of physical activity. From an ecological perspective, Barker’s “behavior setting theory” explains how the physical environments and the patterns of behaviors are linked together; the analyzing unit “behavior setting” is characterized by activities people performed within specific time intervals and spatial boundaries [
48]. In the context of neighborhood parks, behavior setting can be used to analyze people’s levels of physical activity affected by landscape environments of various attributes and qualities.
Neighborhood parks are the important components of an urban green space system, and have been highlighted as the nearest natural environment available for urban citizens [
21]. Although neighborhood parks play an important role in supporting physical activity, they tend to be underutilized, especially for moderate to vigorous exercise [
49]. Studies in China have assessed the spatial accessibility to parks in urbanized areas by analyzing the movement patterns of urban citizens, to value the spatial disparities in the distribution of parks and green spaces [
50,
51]. These studies considered spatial equity in urban green resources on a city scale, but little has been learned about how the specific landscape components within the boundaries of neighborhood parks affect the levels of use. Previous research has shown that nature-based components (e.g., vegetation) received higher perceived restorativeness and stress recovery effects than hardscape features (e.g., plaza) [
52,
53]. The above studies used representative photos or videotaped scenes as research materials, and no data were collected on site from the actual users, so how the landscape features and attributes influenced the behaviors of park users were understudied. In order to understand the impact of design on park usage, and how the physical environments supported the individual’s actions, research should consider the relationship between landscape settings and levels of physical activity in neighborhood parks [
54].
This study used behavior mapping and GIS techniques to investigate how park visitors’ levels of physical activity, such as sedentary, walk, and MVPA, were affected by different types of behavior settings and attributes in neighborhood parks, including water, plaza, lawn, and architecture. The findings can help improve design and management of neighborhood parks in Chinese cultural settings, particularly for promoting physical activity.
4. Discussions
4.1. Setting Types and Physical Activity Level
This study investigated the association between specific behavior settings and users’ level of physical activity in neighborhood parks. Observations revealed that park visitors participated in different levels of activity in various types of settings, such as water, plaza, lawn, and architecture. People were more likely to be physically active in the plaza setting, be involved in walk activity on the lawn, and be sedentary in the landscape architecture setting. In addition, it was noted that behavior settings of the same type but with different landscape attributes (e.g., size, shade of trees, and exercise equipment) differed significantly in the levels of activity that people were involved in.
Water setting. People generally had lower levels of activity by the water, but differences were found among the settings. Of the five water settings, a greater averaged percentage of MVPA participation were observed in water settings WS2 and WH1 than in the other three water settings (53.85% compared to 21.59%). This may due to their different site locations, and the settings away from the main walkway can provide more privacy for activity.
Plaza setting. The highest MVPA level was observed in plaza settings. Medium-sized plazas with shading trees and exercise equipment attracted more MVPA participants. In the plaza, people exercised with fitness equipment (e.g., PS2, PS3, and PH2) or used the paved areas to dance and conduct broadcast gymnastics (e.g., PL1, PL2, and PH1). People on the edge of plazas were attracted to face in the direction of the human activity, supporting the previous design theory of “to see and be seen” [
60]. In small plazas surrounded by buildings (e.g., PS1, PS4, and PH4), traditional exercise such as playing Chinese swords or practicing Tai chi or martial arts occurred, as these places were relatively quiet and suitable for people who wanted to exercise alone or in small groups.
Lawn setting. More proportions of walking people were observed on the lawn than in other settings. The lawn of Hutai Park was an important site for children walking, running, and playing games, accompanied with their parents, and also attracted the attention of passersby.
Architecture setting. Recreational amenities such as pavilions and pergolas attracted people gathering together to do sedentary activities, including playing cards and Chinese chess. It is worth noting that people were involved in different sedentary activities during different times of the day. For example, at one pavilion in Liangcheng Park, many people were observed sitting and drinking tea in the morning, but playing Chinese chess or watching others play in the afternoon.
Based on the behavior mapping data, it can also be speculated that the walkway structure affected the use by walkers. A larger proportion of walkers was coded in Hutai Park (40.47%) than in Songhe Park (33.11%) and Liangcheng Park (31.04%). It may be because the combined looped walkway with a systematic structure promoted walk activity. This finding was supported by previous studies showing walking loops can increase users’ walk activity [
61,
62].
This observational study provides useful information for improving the amount and intensity of physical activity in neighborhood parks. The results generally supported previous research and theory suggesting that landscape attributes can influence park use and physical activity [
33,
35]. The study also demonstrated that behavior mapping is a useful tool for objectively measuring the relationship between park features and visitors’ physical activity [
39,
43,
46].
4.2. Cultural Differences in Park Use
This study provided clues about the differences in park visitors’ behaviors between China and Western countries. Activities such as performing broadcast gymnastics, doing stretching exercises, and playing Chinese chess were commonly observed in Chinese park settings, but not in European parks and American parks, where playing basketball, football, or tennis and walking a dog occurred more often [
21,
45]. Women tended to be more physically active than men in Shanghai neighborhood parks, which is contrary to the results found in an American study [
63]. The possible reasons may be that some activities, such as plaza dancing and broadcast gymnastics, are popular with middle-aged and retired women in China, but are less popular among men. On the other hand, although men generally prefer ball games more than women, the settings in neighborhood parks cannot support (i.e., afford) this type of activity, due to limited space, flow of people, and lack of facilities. Park management and designers could consider the cultural differences in park use, and provide more space and facilities for those less likely to be active.
4.3. Strengths and Limitations
Using the behavior mapping method, this study addressed the specific landscape features associated with intensity of activity in neighborhood parks. This may help designers and policy makers understand the links between physical activity and outdoor design.
While behavior mapping proved to be an effective way to record the location of individuals, their characteristics, and their physical activity, it is time consuming and may not be suitable for monitoring park use in a large area, especially when the data are initially hand-recorded on the sites. Future studies could combine this method with other techniques such as video-taping and unmanned aerial vehicles, to make the process of data collection more precise and efficient [
64].
Although this study took setting types (e.g., water, plaza, lawn, and architecture) into consideration when analyzing the use patterns of neighborhood parks, other landscape characteristics may also influence park usage, such as facilities, amenities, and plantings [
31]. Due to time constraints, this study only collected data from three neighborhood parks of Shanghai, and only in the autumn. Future research could conduct similar work in urban parks of different sizes and with various landscape characteristics, during the four seasons and all day long (from morning till night), so more detailed information could be collected to explore the impacts of different landscape features on users’ behaviors.