1. Introduction
Dating violence (DV) is a social and public health hazard and refers to any physical, sexual or psychological aggression inflicted by a member of a couple against the other. Adolescent or young adults’ DV has been defined as a type of violence that occurs in romantic relationships with different degrees of formality between early adolescence (10 years) and early adulthood (up to 30 years of age) [
1,
2,
3]. Some authors indicate that DV occurs in couples who do not live together and have no children in common or legal ties [
4,
5]. Abuse of one’s dating partner may occur face-to-face (offline), but it can also happen on the Internet, using new technologies and social networks (online). Offline DV comprises intentional abuse or sexual, physical or psychological acts from one partner to another [
1]. Online DV includes psychological control, harassment and direct aggressive behaviors and has a negative impact on victims [
6,
7,
8,
9,
10].
Recent studies have found that off- and online DV are related [
11,
12]. Online DV overlaps with psychological abuse [
6], physical and sexual DV [
13] and stalking [
14]. Regarding offline DV, studies have also found positive correlations between different forms of victimization (verbal, physical and relational) [
15]. However, online DV also differs from offline DV. In online DV, harassment may have a higher scope and visibility, but also a higher risk of non-disclosure of the abuse due to its private nature [
16] as well as a greater probability of repeated victimization since social networks are permanently updated [
17]. Moreover, online DV exposes the victim mediatically during the relationship, or even after it is over [
18].
The empirical evidence on sex differences in the simultaneous prevalence and frequency of off- and online DV is scarce. Regarding offline DV, a recent systematic review revealed that victimization mainly affects females compared to males [
1]; however, other authors have not found a difference in victimization between sexes [
19]. Rates of offline sexual and physical women’s DV victimization varied between 17% (a national survey in the United States) [
20] and 88% [
21]. Indeed Smith et al. [
21] found that during adolescence young women were at greater risk of suffering physical and sexual assault from their partners than young men.
As for cyber dating violence, there is also a large variability in prevalence rates. A study reported rates of 76.5% (females) and 77.1% (males) in the United States, indicating that males stated more electronic victimization and females reported more anticipated distress when suffering cyber DV [
22]. However, Stonard [
23] found that cyber DV was prevalent both among females (victimization: 12–57% at least once or more in the past year) and males (victimization 11–54%). Nevertheless, females had a greater likelihood of being identified as victims in online sexual DV. Similarly, international reports have found higher rates of cyber DV victimization in girls than boys [
24]. A multi-country study conducted in Europe concluded that young women (between the ages of 18 to 29 years) are at a heightened risk of being exposed to different types of cyber violence [
25] and that one in ten women had suffered some cyber violence since the age of 15 [
26]. In Spain, studies found rates of online victimization ranging from 3.5% (e.g., had shared images of themselves without their consent) to 9.2% (e.g., I’ve received messages on the Internet insulting me) [
27]. Specifically, a study showed higher rates of DV control behaviors towards women (80.4%) than direct aggression (29.6%) through social networks [
7].
1.1. Suicidal Risk (SR) and Adolescent/Young Adults Dating Violence
Suicide attempts and suicidal ideation are a public health priority. According to the World Health Organization [
28,
29], suicide is the second leading cause of death among people between 15 and 29 years of age. A study reported that both suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in adolescent samples are greater in girls than in boys and increase with age [
30]. In Spain, two representative studies analyzed rates of suicide risk. The first study indicated that women had a higher prevalence of suicidal ideation, but no previous attempts, compared to men [
31]. The second study found that women are more likely than men to have previously attempted suicide [
32]. In addition, a revision of longitudinal studies (adolescents and young adults) found that being a victim of DV is one of the specific risk factors for taking one’s life in women [
33].
The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide [
34,
35] has been cited to explain suicide risk in DV samples [
36,
37]. This theory postulates that frustrated interpersonal needs (frustrated belonging and perceived burden) are antecedents to suicidal ideation. According to this theory, suicidal ideation is the result of feelings of responsibility and self-hatred (perceived burden) and feelings of loneliness and low mutual attention (frustrated belonging) [
38]. Both psychological and physical aggression have the potential to promote frustrated belonging and perceived burden. Furthermore, this theory proposes that the acquired capacity to act on the desire to take one’s life develops through previous exposure to painful and fear-inducing experiences. Accordingly, experiences of physical and sexual violence could be painful or fear-inducing physical experiences. Moreover, this is an immediate antecedent to suicidal ideation [
38].
Therefore, suffering DV (offline) has been associated with suicide and suicidal ideation in women [
39]. A multi-country study (21 countries) with university students concluded that there was no correlation between males’ suicidal ideation and DV victimization (except for physical violence), while suffering any type of violence was associated with higher rates of suicidal thoughts in women [
40]. Olshen et al. [
41] found that DV (during the past 12 months) was associated with suicide attempts in adolescent girls. Furthermore, two meta-analytical studies supported these results. One study included adolescent and young adults, men and women, showing an increased risk of suicide attempts for victims of DV compared to their non-exposed counterparts [
42]. In a second meta-analysis of longitudinal studies, two studies with adolescent and young women found DV was associated with attempted suicide [
43].
Studies have also documented the consequences of different types of cybervictimization on women, confirming that it is associated with increased negative feelings, social avoidance and suicide attempts [
44]. Online DV has been negatively related with well-being and is a significant negative predictor of self-esteem and a positive predictor of emotional distress [
45]. In Spain, Borrajo and Gamex Guadix [
7] found that online DV victimization was associated with increased symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescents. However, fewer studies have been conducted regarding online DV in women and risk of suicide.
1.2. Social Context, Perceived Attachment to Parents and Peers and Adolescent/Young Adults Dating Violence
According to attachment theory, peers and parents are the most important figures during adolescence and provide emotional support when needed [
46]. Attachment figures are those that teens feel they can count on in times of increased stress or danger [
47]. Two meta-analyses confirm that high attachment to peers is positively correlated with lower indices of offline DV victimization [
48,
49]. Moreover, adolescents who reported a high level of attachment to their parents also reportedly suffered less offline DV [
49].
Supporting these results, victims of offline DV (both genders) showed lower levels of social support from friends and family compared to those who were not victims. However, social support given by peers was only related to lower levels of DV victimization among girls but not for boys, while parental social support was not been associated with DV victimization. These results suggest that adolescents rarely turn to their parents or other adults for concerns and issues related to DV and indicate that friends may play a crucial function as protective figures in DV, mostly among girls [
50,
51]. Nevertheless, another study found that adolescents who suffered online DV tended to seek support first from parents than from peers or teachers, especially in the case of girls [
52].
1.3. Social Context, Perceived Attachment to Parents and Peers and SR
Regarding emotional problems, support from parents and friends has been defined as two relatively independent support systems. During early adolescence, the search for parental support decreases and peer support increases because it is during this period that adolescents start to establish intimate relationships outside of the family and want to become more independent from their parents’ guidance. However, this autonomy is frequently still established within the context of continuing close and trusting relationships with parents, and the lack of parental support remains the best sign of mental problems during adolescence [
53]. In this sense, Mackin et al. [
54] found that high levels of parental support protected adolescent girls from developing suicidal symptoms following a stressor event. This effect was less pronounced for peer support. The global importance of attachment with parents has also been mentioned by authors such as Sternberg et al. [
55] stressing that this attachment is positively correlated with measures not only of family cohesion and expressiveness, but also with higher self-esteem, life satisfaction, and lower levels of psychological symptomatology, such as distress, depression, anxiety, resentment, covert anger, or loneliness.
As suggested above, both attachment with parents and peers have been addressed as predictors of suicide and risk factors for DV. Previous findings indicated that parent–child relationships marked by emotional distance, non-responsiveness, and greater conflict are associated with more risk-taking behaviors and DV in adolescents [
56]. Conversely, girls with secure perceived peer support may have some type of protection from engaging in violent relationships [
51]. Also, a study found that different aspects of mothers’ parenting control protect against various forms of victimization in DV [
57].
1.4. The Current Study
Prior studies have examined many of these correlates individually, but there is scarce research addressing these factors simultaneously. Although the literature confirms the bi-directional pattern of DV [
58,
59], results systematically show differences between men and women in severity and consequences [
2]. For example, a meta-analysis [
33] that confirms the relationship of DV victimization with suicide attempts, is significant only in women. Consequently, this study is focused on studying DV and suicide risk from the perspective of female victims. Furthermore, several authors have highlighted the importance of studying violence in intimate relationships and DV from a gender-specific approach, considering gender-specific risk factors and consequences associated with violence [
60,
61]
The first aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of off-online DV and suicide risk. Second, this study analyzes the relationship of off-online DV, perceived attachment to parents and peers and suicide risk. We expected to find that offline and online DV were positively associated with SR and negatively with perceived attachment to parents and peers. Therefore, those with poor attachment styles would be more likely to experience riskier behaviors (DV and SR). Third, this study will examine whether parent and peer support mediate and/or moderate the relationship between only offline or online DV, and simultaneous off-online DV on SR. We expected to find that stronger attachment to parents and peers would have a buffering effect between offline and online DV and SR.
4. Discussion
This study analyzed the prevalence of off and online DV and suicide risk in a sample of Spanish teenage/young women. We aimed to explore the relationship between off and online DV, perceived attachment to parents and peers and suicide risk. In addition, we explored the link between attachment, and its buffering role, in the relationship between off and online DV and SR.
The findings of this study show that there was a high prevalence of offline and online DV in adolescent and young adult girls. The percentage of face–to–face violence was higher than in online DV. These results seemingly contradict a British study with adolescents (boys and girls) in which cyber DV was more prevalent than offline DV (controlling and physical violence) [
23]. In contrast, in this current study, rates of offline DV violence reached 76%. Rodríguez–Franco et al. [
69] found similar results in a sample of Spanish adolescents, showing rates of 70%. López–Cepero, Lana, Rodríguez Franco and Rodriguez Díaz [
70] reported lower rates of offline DV in young Spanish girls (between 2.3% and 27%) (15 and 25 years) than the percentages found in this study (between 11% and 65% depending on the dimension). We also found that psychological violence (detachment, humiliation and coercion) was the most common type of DV with a prevalence of between 65% and 36%, in line with results from López–Cepero et al. [
70].
Online DV was present in 69% of cases. The most frequent types of violence were monitoring and control violence, and to a lesser extent, direct aggression. These findings are in line with those mentioned by Borrajo and Guadix [
7] in a study carried out with a Spanish adolescent sample that used the same measures and with studies conducted in various countries [
12]. Furthermore, prior longitudinal research also indicated that offline (psychological and physical) and online victimization DV were positively related [
71]. More than half of the adolescent girls in this study reported experiencing both off-online DV (57%). This result coincides with previous findings and suggests that DV does not tend to occur in isolation and that different types of violence are interrelated and coexist in courtship [
12,
13]. Moreover, a recent study found that different forms of offline DV victimization were a predictor of online DV [
72]. These results also suggest that technology and social media may provide new opportunities for online DV victimization, which may not have been possible before the development of the internet and social media. Moreover, results confirm that new technologies can be used to connect with a romantic partner but also to control and humiliate them privately and publicly [
13]. Thus, DV experienced by young women in digital spaces can continue in real life and vice versa.
Regarding suicide ideation rates, 22.7% of girls reported thinking of suicide after DV. These results are consistent with the percentage of SR (23.1%) found in a male and female Spanish sample with similar characteristics [
73]. Moreover, results indicated that around 11.2% of DV victims talked to someone about the idea of taking one’s own life, and 8% had attempted suicide after suffering DV. These results show higher rates of suicide ideation and attempted suicide (9.7% and 5.6% respectively) than the previously mentioned study [
73].
Specifically, our findings confirm that the percentage of young women who thought about suicide or attempted suicide is higher among those who suffered offline and online DV compared to non–victims. This is especially the case in those young women who have suffered both types of DV. Suicidal ideation was approximately between two and three times higher for those who reported suffering offline and online DV, and over four times higher in the joint DV situation. In addition, the likelihood of attempting suicide was 3.5 times higher for those girls who suffered online DV and four times higher in those who suffered offline DV compared to non–victims. Nevertheless, an even stronger burden lays once again on those women who experience both types of DV. In this case, there is a tenfold increase in the risk of taking one’s own life. All these results were supported by data from the correlational analyses. Correlations confirm that DV (off, online and off–online) are closely linked to an increase in SR rates among adolescent girls. These results are consistent with other studies conducted with women confirming that victims of DV show more suicidal ideation [
39] and attempted suicide [
33,
43].
These results also lend support to the interpersonal theory of suicide [
34,
35]. Chu et al.’s [
74] meta–analysis posits that the interaction between frustrated belonging and the perceived burden was significantly associated with suicidal ideation; and that the interaction between frustrated belonging, perceived burden and suicide capacity was significantly related to a greater number of previous suicide attempts. The experience of DV can frustrate interpersonal needs, thereby increasing the risk of suicidal ideation. DV victims may have a high risk of suicidal ideation due to increased feelings of burden and disconnectedness. First, the perception of a lack of reciprocal caring relationship from one’s partner and social isolation related with the partner’s control, which are probably inherent features of DV, could help explain one’s frustrated belonging. As found in previous studies with a Spanish sample, DV victims repeatedly show greater feelings of loneliness and assess their social network more negatively than non–victimized or occasionally victimized adolescents [
75]. Second, suffering experiences of humiliation, detachment or coercion from a partner may increase the perceived burden and self–hatred. Some studies have shown that young women DV victims report emotional distress and a profound self–discontent [
76]. In the same vein, another study has found that the public nature of information and distribution of shameful images (difficult to remove but easy to share) in online DV are particularly humiliating experiences for adolescents [
17]. Studies such as those conducted by Lamis et al. [
36] and Wolford–Clevenger et al. [
37] confirm that when the level of frustrated membership is high, the perceived burden correlates with suicidal ideation. Thus, theoretical and empirical reasons exist to expect DV victimization may increase suicidal thoughts and the risk of suicide attempts in victims.
Correlation analyses also found that perceived attachment to parents and peers was positively associated, suggesting a positive link between these two supporting systems. As expected, mediation analyses confirmed the effect of DV on SR, suggesting that DV increases thoughts and suicide attempts. DV also had a direct effect on parental and peers’ attachment, indicating that there are more difficulties establishing quality relationships based on trust, communication, and seeking help. Emotional violence involves humiliation, detachment, isolation and elicits fear and compliance restricting social connections, factors that may contribute to increased SR [
77]. This result is in accordance with the association between DV and depressive symptoms, one of the most robust correlates of suicidal ideation. Finally, results show that perceived attachment to parents and peers also decreased SR among adolescents. These results are consistent with studies that find a negative effect of detachment from parents and peers on well–being [
63,
78].
Indirect effects confirmed the mediation role of parental and peer attachment between DV and SR. Perceived attachment to parents and peers could reduce the effect of DV on SR, suggesting that feeling connected to parents and peers is a powerful buffer against suicidal thoughts since it reduces the emotional negative effects of DV. Findings are also consistent with attachment theory. Parents and peers can be trusted, safe and protective figures [
47]. DV victims may perceive parents and peers as sensitive and responsive to their emotional states helping them to reduce their feelings of isolation and anger. As a result, high levels of parental support may protect teens from later developing suicidal symptoms [
54]. Additionally, the results of the moderation analyses show that these two attachment figures reduce the effect of dating violence on suicide risk in different ways. High parental attachment reduced more the effect of off–online DV on SR. This type of violence was found to be that which increased suicide risk in a much larger amount. This result suggests that perceptions of secure relationships with parents may be more important than the perception of peer attachment for some measures of mental health [
63]. Nevertheless, high perceived peer attachment is that which reduces the effects of offline violence on suicide risk. This result is consistent with authors such as [
79] who stress that when young people are faced with a violent relationship they will more frequently seek support among their peers.
The strength of the current study is to explore offline, online and off–online DV and its relationship with suicide within the broader context of family functioning and peer relationships. This study also has relevant practical implications. On the one hand, findings suggest that further studies on DV should cover both online and offline types of DV due to the great impact that suffering both types of DV has not only on suicidal ideation, but on actually having tried to take one’s own life. Results indicated that online and offline DV is common among young couples. The considerable prevalence data from online abuse suggests that the use of ICT may have turned into a new tool for DV toward one’s partner, which previously occurred exclusively in face–to–face interactions. Females who had experienced DV were more likely to report negative feelings in addition to considering and attempting suicide. This study highlights the importance of family and peer systems in suicide prevention. There was less SR when parents and peers supported the victim. Low perceived attachment to parents was associated with greater SR in victims relative to the contribution made by peer attachment. This result suggests that parents play the strongest role in buffering negative feelings and mitigating pain and discomfort associated with DV. Furthermore, it provides evidence that adolescents receive qualitatively different aspects of support from their parents and peers. It could suggest that poor family support may be associated with problems in developing self–reliance in early adolescence. As a result, adolescents may be more vulnerable to suffering DV. Programs that seek to prevent DV should work toward introducing a more secure model of attachment that emphasizes a positive self–concept of oneself and of others and pursuing a more open and fluid communication between parents and adolescents. On the other hand, it is relevant to raise awareness about the role of peers and their influence in DV situations. High parent attachment did not appear to compensate for low peer attachment. This indicates that adolescents need to learn to talk constructively with their peers about DV [
80]. This implies that a peer group may provide a supportive and encouraging environment for adolescents in terms of self–expression. Therefore, programs should offer knowledge and tools on how to intervene without increasing the perils for those involved [
50]. In sum, communities, parents and other professionals all have a role to play in supporting and informing young people about the risks of dating and guiding them to make healthy and safe choices and decisions.
However, the study has a series of limitations. First, we used self–reported measures for DV, SR and perceived attachment to parents and peers. Thus, social desirability could affect responses regarding sexual violence or suicidal thoughts. Secondly, we used a cross–sectional design, and as a result, it was not possible to infer the exact nature of the relationship between DV and SR. As such, DV may be a consequence rather than an antecedent [
43]. Third, selecting the cut–off point as “zero tolerance” may lead to a high percentage of false positives. Fourth, considering that the sample includes an extensive age range (13 to 28), the age variable was controlled in the analyses. However, including this wide range could be a limitation of the study in terms of generalizing results (external validity) to adolescent women who are in an initial and intermediate adolescence phase, and those who are living through adult transition (over 20 years). During this time span, romantic relationships, the role of parents and peers, and suicide risk may vary. This limitation leaves future lines open for analyzing DV and SR and develop specific comparisons according to those age groups. However, evidence strongly suggests that the capacity of young females to detect and label abuse is far from optimal [
69] and that being over–cautious in the selection process draws attention to the problem of minimizing abuse. Fourth, in the study we have used the same instrument to measure the relationship with both parents (mother and father). It could be appropriate in future studies to use a measure that differentiates each parent and the role they play as support and attachment figures. Finally, and despite having a significant sample size, it is nevertheless a convenience sample which limits the generalization of results to other contexts.