Disinfection of Wastewater by UV-Based Treatment for Reuse in a Circular Economy Perspective. Where Are We at?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology and Structure
- 1° Screening: A preliminary screening of the literature was performed discarding duplicates and only peer-review papers published in English on international journals have been considered. The other publications have been excluded and have not been mentioned in the present review. The selection process continued excluding the articles and reviews that do not analyze sustainable UV-based processes and those which focus on different applications than WW disinfection treatments.
- 2° Screening: The investigation focused mainly on works published in the last 15 years.
3. Photolysis
3.1. UV Pulsed UV (PUV) and UV-Light Emitting Diode (UV-LED)
3.1.1. UV Pulsed (PUV)
3.1.2. UV-Light Emitting Diode (UV-LED)
4. Combination with Other Technologies
4.1. Sonophotolysis
4.2. Photocatalysis
4.3. Photoelectrocatalysis
5. Discussion and Future Outlooks
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ARG | Antibiotic resistance gene |
DBP | Disinfection by-product |
eARG | extracellular antibiotic resistance gene |
PC | Photocatalysis |
PEC | Photoelectrocatalysis |
PUV | Pulsed ultraviolet radiation |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
THM | Trihalomethane |
US | Ultrasound |
UV | Ultraviolet radiation |
WW | Wastewater |
WWTP | Wastewater treatment plant |
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Type of Water | Characteristic of Water Tested | Operative Condition | Experimental Scale | Results | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | Primary (I) and secondary (II) WW effluents | 35 J m−2 (I) 62 J m−2 (II) | Lab scale reactor (0.05 L) | E. coli: 1-log | [44] | ||
S | Bacteria suspension in phosphate buffered saline solution | 8 mJ cm−2 | Bench scale reactor (0.01 L) | E. coli: >4.5-log | [60] | ||
S | Bacteria suspension in sterilized saline solution (105 CFU mL−1) | 15 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.015 L) | E. coli: >4.5-log a | [56] | ||
R | Secondary effluent of municipal WWTP | 10 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.015 L) | Total coliform: >2-log a | [56] | ||
R | Primary (I) and secondary (II) effluents of pilot WWTP | 50 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.02 L) | P. aeruginosa (Strain 1) | P. aeruginosa (Strain 2) | [61] | |
I | 1-log | 2-log | |||||
II | 2-log | 3-log | |||||
R | Secondary effluent of municipal WWTP | 30 mJ cm−2 | Bench scale reactor (3 L) | E. coli: 3.4-log | [62] | ||
S | Bacteria suspension in sterilized saline solution (107 CFU mL−1) | 40 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.015 L) | E. colib: >5.5-log | [63] | ||
S | Bacteria suspension in phosphate buffered saline solution (107 CFU mL−1) | 80 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.04 L) | E. colic: 6-log | [48] |
Type of Water | Type of Technology | Characteristic of Water Tested | Operative Condition | Experimental Scale | Results | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S | PUV | Bacteria suspension in phosphate buffered saline solution | 3 mJ cm−2 | Bench scale reactor (0.01 L) | E. coli: 4.26-log Phage T4: 4.29-log Phage T7: 2.72-log | [60] | ||
S | PUV | Distilled water with organic dairy WW solids (25 mg L−1) and 1 × 106 CFU mL−1 initial concentration of E Coli | 1946 mJ cm−2 | Bench scale reactor (5 L) | E. coli: >3.5-log | [64] | ||
S | PUV | Bacteria suspension in phosphate buffered saline solution | PL1: 76 J cm−2 a PL2: 95 J cm−2 a | Lab scale reactor (0.003 L) | E. coli: 11-log (PL1) E. coli: 6-log (PL2) | [66] | ||
S | UV-LED | Bacteria suspension in sterile saline solution (107 CFU mL−1) | 265 nm LED: 10.91 ± 0.76 mJ cm−2 (265 + 280) nm (50%): 12.57 ± 0.81 mJ cm−2 (265 + 280) nm (75%): 13.78 ± 0.67 mJ cm−2 280 nm LED: 15.35 ± 1.52 mJ cm−2 | Lab scale reactor (0.005 L) | E. coli: 4.5-log | [67] | ||
S, R | UV-LED | Deionized water, kaoline suspension (DIK), secondary effluents of urban WWTP (SE) | 30 mJ cm−2 Exposure time: 900 s | Batch reactor (0.03 L) | E. coli: >4.5-log (DIK), 3-log (SE) | [68] | ||
R | UV-LED | Domestic WW from a sewer system, the treated with settler and sand filter | 69.4 mJ cm−2 Exposure time: 412 s Flow rate: 10 mL min−1 | Flow through reactor (0.0686 L) | MS2 coliphage b: 3.7 ± 0.2 -log | [69] | ||
R | UV-LED | Secondary effluent of WWTP with UASB treatment c | Wavelength (nm) | Irradiance intensity (mW cm−2) | Lab scale reactor (0.02 L) | Wavelength (nm) | E. coli inactivation log | [70] |
255 | 0.017 | 255 | 2.6 | |||||
280 | 0.019 | 280 | 4.0 | |||||
365 | 0.004 | 255/280 | 3.7 | |||||
405 | 0.077 | 255/280/405 | 3.8 | |||||
Exposure time: 15 min | 280/365/405 | 3.5 | ||||||
255/280/365/405 | 3.8 |
Type of Water | Characteristic of Water Tested | Operative Condition | Experimental Scale | Results | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP | US: 310 W L−1 UV: 0.037 mJ cm−2 t (US): 10 s t (UV): 30 s | Lab scale reactor | E. coli: >5.5 log Feacal streptococci: >6.5 log | [86] |
R | Tertiary effluents of domestic and industrial WWTP a | US: 350 W UV: 1656 mJ cm−2 t:15 min | Pilot plant (80 L) | E. coli: 1.6-log Total coliform: 1.7-log | [80] |
US: 1400 W UV: 1656 mJ cm−2 t:15 min | E. coli: >4-log Total coliform: 3.9-log | ||||
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP | US: 180 W, 40 kHz, 2.64 kJ L−1 UV: 30 mJ cm−2 | Bench-scale reactor (3 L) | E. coli: 5.4-log | [62] |
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP | US: 89.9 W UV: 174 W | Pilot plant (1200 L h−1, 96 L) | Faecal coliform: 4.24-log | [85] |
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP | US: 100 W UV: 170 W | Pilot plant (96 L) | Total coliform: 3.87-log | [77] |
S, R | Deionized water, kaoline suspension (DIK), secondary effluents of urban WWTP (SE) | US: 33 kHz, 200 W UV-LED: 30 mJ cm−2 t (US): 40 s t (UV): 900 s | Batch reactor (US: 2 L, UV: 30 mL) | E. coli: 6-log (DIK), 3.5-log (SE) b | [68] |
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP | US: 130 kHz UV: 600 mJ cm−2 t: 240 min | Lab scale reactor (US: 50 mL, UV:20 mL) | Sulfonamide resistant E. coli: 3.8-log Tetracycline resistant E. coli: 4.4-log | [90] |
Type of Water | Characteristics of Water Tested | Photocatalyst | Operative Condition | Experimental Scale | Results | References | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S | Bacteria suspension in sterilized saline solution (107 CFU mL−1) | g-C3N4/TiO2 | Xe lamp with UV filter: 30 mW cm−2 t: 180 min | Lab scale reactor (0.11 L) | E. coli: 100% inactivation a | [17] | ||||
S | Bacteria suspension in sterilized saline solution (2.42 × 106 CFU mL−1) | TiO2 | UV: 42.7 mJ cm−2 | Pilot plant (1000 L h−1) | E. coli: 3.05-log | [40] | ||||
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP (1.5 × 108 CFU mL−1) | 0.1% Mn:TiO2 0.1% Co:TiO2 0.04 Mn/Co:TiO2 | Xe O3-free lamp: 1.31 10−2 W m−2 t: 90 min | Lab scale reactor (0.3 L) | K. pneumoniae | [122] | ||||
Sunlight | UV | |||||||||
Sunlight: 12.7–13.4 W m−2 T: 29–32.7 °C t: 60 min | 0.1% Mn:TiO2 | 1-log | 4-log | |||||||
0.1% Co:TiO2 | 2-log | 6-log | ||||||||
0.04 Mn/Co:TiO2 | 1-log | 6-log | ||||||||
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP (E. coli: 200 CFU mL−1, Salmonella ssp.: 159 CFU ml−1, Shigella ssp.: 95 CFU ml−1, Vibrio cholerae: 10 CFU ml−1) | undoped TiO2 Ag-doped TiO2 Cu.doped TiO2 Fe-doped TiO2 | UV: 70 mW cm−2 t:15 min | Lab scale reactor (0.7 L) | E. coli | Salmonella species | Shigella species | Vibrio cholerae | [39] | |
undoped TiO2 | 0.757-log | 0.724-log | 0.802-log | 0.51-log | ||||||
Ag-doped TiO2 | 1-log | 1.025-log | 1.003-log | 0.6-log | ||||||
Cu-doped TiO2 | 0.903-log | 0.9-log | 0.978-log | 0.45-log | ||||||
Fe-doped TiO2 | 1-log | 0.754-log | 0.45-log | 0.55-log | ||||||
S | Bacteria suspension in sterilized saline solution (5 × 106 CFU mL−1) | Ag@ZnO core-shell nanoparticles | Sunlight: 90.000 ± 5000 lux T: 35°C t (E. coli): 60 min t (S. aureus): 90 min | Lab scale reactor (2 L) | E. coli: 6-log S. aureus: 6-log | [123] | ||||
R | Secondary effluents of municipal WWTP (300 ± 30 CFU mL−1) | N-TiO2/PS b | LED: 81.6 W t: 120 min | Lab scale reactor (0.5 L) | E. coli: 1.13-log c | [106] | ||||
R | Secondary effluents of WWTP (107 CFU mL−1) | CoFe2O4/HTCC d | Xe lamp: 300 W t: 160 min | Lab scale reactor (0.020 L) | E. coli: 7-log | [112] | ||||
R | Secondary effluents of local WWTP (4.5 × 107 CFU mL−1) | AgFeNTFS e | Fluorescent lamp: 330 W m−2 t: 90 min | Lab scale reactor | E. coli: 3-log | [124] | ||||
S | Bacteria suspension in phosphate buffered saline solution (106 CFU mL−1) | CNCT-3 f | Xe lamp: 50 mW cm−2 t: 90 min | Lab scale reactor (0.01 L) | E. coli: 6-log | [125] |
Type of Water | Characteristic of Water Tested | Operative Condition | Experimental Scale | Results | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
S | Cell density of 107 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | TiO2/Ti-film Zirconium cathode Xenon lamp: 150 W, 1.31 × 10−2 W m−2 Electric potential: +2.0 V t: 120 min | Lab scale reactor (0.06 L) | E. coli: 7-log | [136] |
R | Secondary effluent of municipal WWTP with cell density of 107 CFU mL−1 and Na2SO4 | TiO2/Ti-film Zirconium cathode Xenon lamp: 150 W, 1.31 × 10−2 W m−2 Electric potential: +5.0 V t: 90 min | E. coli: 100% inactivation d | ||
S | Cell density of 7 × 104 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | Ti/TiO2–Ag nanotubes Pt gauze UV: 125 W, 9.23 W m−2 Xenon lamp: 150 W Electric potential: +1.5 V Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) t (UV): 3 min t (visible irradiation): 30 min | Lab scale reactor (0.25 L) | M. smegmati UV: total inactivation Visible irradiation: 2.4-log c | [134] |
S | Cell density of 107 CFU mL−1 with NaNO3 solution | TiO2 nanotubes Platinum foil UV: 28 mW cm−2 Electric potential. +1.0 V Ag/AgCl t (E. coli K12): 3 min t (E. coli BW25113 a): 6.2 min | Lab scale reactor | E. coli K-12: 100% inactivation d E. coli BW25113: 100% inactivation d | [132] |
S | Cell density of 107 CFU mL−1 with NaNO3 solution | N-doped carbonaceous/TiO2 Platinum foil Electric potential: +1.0 V Ag/AgCl Xenon lamp: 15 mW cm−2 t: 30 min b | Lab scale reactor (0.05 L) | E. coli: 100% inactivation d | [135] |
S | Cell density of 3 × 102 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | Ag-doped Ti/TiO2 UVA: 8 W, 0.49 mW cm−2 Electric potential: +1.5 V Ag/AgCl (1 mol L−1 KCl) t (E. coli): 10 min t (S. aureus): 60 min | Lab scale reactor (0.254 L) | E. coli: 100% inactivation d S. aureus: 100% inactivation d | [67] |
Cell density of 3 × 102 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | non-doped Ti/TiO2 UVA: 8 W, 0.49 mW cm−2 Electric potential: +1.5 V Ag/AgCl (1 mol L−1 KCl) t: 60 min | E. coli: 0.33-log c S. aureus:0.25-log c | |||
S | Cell density of 103 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | 2 coating-TiO2/ITO Ni mesh UVA: 6 W, 0.47 W m−2 Electric potential: +1.4 V t: 140 min | Lab scale reactor (1 L) | E. coli: 100% inactivation d | [131] |
R | Secondary effluent of urban WWTP with cell density of 1.6 × 109 CFU mL−1 | Ag(4%)-TiO2 polished Al foil UVA: 4 W Electric Potential: +1.5 V t: 16 min | Lab scale reactor (0.05 L) | Faecal coliform: 100% inactivation d | [130] |
S | Cell density of 106 CFU mL−1 with Na2SO4 solution | Ag(4%)-TiO2 UVA: 125 W Electric potential: +1.7 V Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) t: 5 min (P. aeruginosa) t: 15 min (B. atrophaeus) | Lab scale reactor (0.1 L) | P. aeruginosa: 100% inactivation d B. atrophaeus: 100% inactivation d | [15] |
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Collivignarelli, M.C.; Abbà, A.; Miino, M.C.; Caccamo, F.M.; Torretta, V.; Rada, E.C.; Sorlini, S. Disinfection of Wastewater by UV-Based Treatment for Reuse in a Circular Economy Perspective. Where Are We at? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010077
Collivignarelli MC, Abbà A, Miino MC, Caccamo FM, Torretta V, Rada EC, Sorlini S. Disinfection of Wastewater by UV-Based Treatment for Reuse in a Circular Economy Perspective. Where Are We at? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(1):77. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010077
Chicago/Turabian StyleCollivignarelli, Maria Cristina, Alessandro Abbà, Marco Carnevale Miino, Francesca Maria Caccamo, Vincenzo Torretta, Elena Cristina Rada, and Sabrina Sorlini. 2021. "Disinfection of Wastewater by UV-Based Treatment for Reuse in a Circular Economy Perspective. Where Are We at?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1: 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010077