Breast Milk and COVID-19: From Conventional Data to “Omics” Technologies to Investigate Changes Occurring in SARS-CoV-2 Positive Mothers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Breast Milk, SARS-CoV-2 and Antibodies
3. Breast Milk, SARS-CoV-2 and Metabolomics
3.1. SARS-CoV-2 and Tryptophan Metabolism
3.2. SARS-CoV-2, Phenylalanine and Tyrosine Metabolism
4. Breast Milk, SARS-CoV-2, and Microbiomics
From “More Gut in the Lung” to “Less Gut in the Lung”?
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bacterial Species | Study Findings | |
---|---|---|
Bifidobacterium | The most abundant species in early childhood. Progressive decrease with age (5–10% in adults). Increasing of their abundance before weaning in BF infants promoting by HMOs [68]. Producers of SCFAs (acetate) and lactate through their saccharolytic activity, providing specific immune stimulation and acidification (protective against infections) of the intestinal environment. Cross feeders for butyrate producing bacteria. Promotors of bacteria–bacteria talk important for intestinal homeostasis and future gut microbiota [68,73]. Interaction with the human intestine favored by their extracellular structures
| Reduced in fecal microbiota of COVID-19 patients [66,67]. Negatively correlated with IL10* and INFα in hospitalized patients [66] |
Lactobacillus | <1% of the whole intestinal microbiota and only 0.3% in the colon. Higher in breastfed infants up to 6 months. Protective role against infections due to the production of lactic acid (< intestinal pH), and acetate by the degradation of host-carbohydrates [68]. Involvement in tryptophan metabolism resulting in production of indole catabolites, interacting with the intestinal ahRs which promote intestinal barrier and protect from opportunistic pathogen [76]. | Positively correlated with proteomic risk score for COVID-19 and with IL6 and IL10* [69]. |
Fecalibacterium prausnitzii | Considered the “gatekeeper” of intestinal health it is one of the most abundant and relevant commensal bacteria of the human gut. Immuno-modulatory properties and anti-inflammatory effects in murine models of colitis. Acetate consumer and butyrate-producer. Inducing IL-10 in vitro. Able to decrease IL8 concentration.Reduced in metabolic and gut diseases as Crohn’s disease, celiac disease, colorectal cancer, obesity as well as in elderly people [68,77]. | Significantly reduced in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Negatively correlated with the disease severity [65,66] and to the levels of IL10* and TNFα [66]. |
A. muciniphila | Considered the “sentinel of the gut” It colonizes the intestinal tract during infancy and reaches 1–4% of the fecal microbiota in adulthood. Cross feeders for butyrate producing bacteria by mucus degradation, allowing their anti-inflammatory properties. Reduced in metabolic inflammatory diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and IBD in mice and humans [78,79,80]. Involvement in tryptophan metabolism resulting in production of indole catabolites [81]. | Increased in hospitalized COVID-19 patients and positively correlated with some cytokines [66]. Compensatory effect? Can the increase allow the growth of good butyrate-producing bacteria, counteracting the inflammation? |
Ruminococcaceae and Lacnospiraceae | Butyrate-producing bacteria, colonize the intestine mainly after weaning filling niches previously belonging to Bifidobacteria spp., but low amount of them also early in life may promotes the rapid change in the composition of the bacterial flora during weaning [82]. | Reduced in microbiota in COVID-19 studies and negatively correlated with disease severity [65,67]. Negatively correlated with proteomic risk score for COVID-19 and cytokines [69]. |
Bacteroides | SCFAs producers from degradation of host glycans, mucine, oligosaccharides. Through their capsular polysaccharide they
Role in counteract SARS-CoV-2?
| Negatively correlated with proteomic risk score for COVID-19 and with pro-inflammatory cytochines [65]. Negatively correlated with viral load [69]. |
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Bardanzellu, F.; Puddu, M.; Fanos, V. Breast Milk and COVID-19: From Conventional Data to “Omics” Technologies to Investigate Changes Occurring in SARS-CoV-2 Positive Mothers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 5668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115668
Bardanzellu F, Puddu M, Fanos V. Breast Milk and COVID-19: From Conventional Data to “Omics” Technologies to Investigate Changes Occurring in SARS-CoV-2 Positive Mothers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(11):5668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115668
Chicago/Turabian StyleBardanzellu, Flaminia, Melania Puddu, and Vassilios Fanos. 2021. "Breast Milk and COVID-19: From Conventional Data to “Omics” Technologies to Investigate Changes Occurring in SARS-CoV-2 Positive Mothers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 11: 5668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115668