“I Don’t Know Where I Have to Knock for Support”: A Mixed-Methods Study on Perceptions and Experiences of Single Mothers Raising Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Single Motherhood in Sub-Saharan Africa
1.2. Single Motherhood and Adverse Child Health Outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa
1.3. Purpose of the Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Recruitment
2.2. Survey
2.3. Study Implementation
2.4. Ethical Considerations
2.5. Analysis
2.6. Quantitative Analysis
2.7. Qualitative Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Thematic Categories
3.2. Challenges
3.2.1. Financial Challenges
Difficulties Affording Day-to-Day Costs
“I am a widow. I live here with my children. We are suffering so much. In reality, because of poverty, we miss what to eat. As you see us here since the morning nobody has eaten. It means things are very hard. I don’t know what to do because when the sun sets, we go to bed, but we don’t always know if it will rise again for us. We are so poor that we sometimes assume we will die when we go to bed. In fact, we are suffering a lot.”(ID 1923)
“None of my children go to school… The first one is 8 years old. I pray that people help us pay their school fees... My husband left 3 years ago.”(ID 1771)
“They are fatherless. I live with them alone. The first one is 13 years old, but because of poverty, he is now in 3rd primary school. I work for CDF 2000 per day. I use CDF1500 and save CDF 500. I save it to pay school fees. I negotiate with teachers after I saved a given amount of money. Sometimes the teachers don’t put up with me, so they chase them [the children]. And in that case, they stay at home. All of this is because of poverty”(ID 2134).
Low Level of Personal Resources
“We displaced from there because of war. We lost all of the production within our fields. We are suffering here because we don’t have land to cultivate in. As a result, we are renting houses here.”(ID 1875)
“My husband is a soldier. He left me with 7 children, none of whom go to school. I live with them right here... I really need support because I am even renting a house where they are expelling me. This is the kind of life I am leading.”(ID 1842)
3.2.2. Health Challenges
Illness and Injuries
“Since I gave birth to X, she is sickly. I have had her treated, but nothing is improving because I don’t have money. She doesn’t even eat well. She has changed completely. I don’t know what is going on in her body, for her skin is changing completely since I gave birth to her.”(ID 1690)
“That child made me suffer because his father died while he was still young…I have struggled a lot with him…When he was a baby, he suffered from Kwashiorkor. I took him to the place where he could eat porridge they give to malnourished children. He is 18 years old, but he is not strong enough because of what he endured…”(ID 1851)
“When you have many children in your household, you face a lot of problems. When they fall sick, you become overwhelmed with sorrows because of lack of means to help you out. One of my children fell seriously sick to the extent that we were worried about his fate. Happily, he made it, but in other situations we can even lose a person or a child because of lack of money.”(ID 1748)
Disability
“That child was born well, but when he turned 7 months old, he started falling sick, he fainted down, and one side become unfunctional. They took him to hospital. That situation was unsuccessful, that is why he is a disabled child.”(ID 1673)
“I was married at the age of 13. I suffered a lot while I was pregnant. When I delivered the child, he was born with disabilities. The child has made me suffer up to this time. My husband died. I started searching here and there, as I was left alone to take care of the child.”(ID 2004)
3.2.3. Heightened Caregiving Responsibilities
Caring for Other Children in Addition to Own
“I am a widow living with my 10 children and 2 other orphans. In total, I have 12 children. We don’t have money to rent a house. We are living in a house to be the watch people for the house. Since I don’t have means, my children don’t go to school, and I don’t have means to feed them, send them to school, and clothe them.”(ID 2076)
“I am suffering too much. I was married to a man who died and left children. I have a daughter of mine who has 2 children. She was raped... She became pregnant. She gave birth to a child whose legs are dangled... We are suffering so much. My daughter is suffering too.”(ID 1725)
High Number of Children
“I am a mother to 8 children. My husband died while I was pregnant of the last born. At that time, I was sending 5 children to school, but for the time being, I only pay for 1 child, so others are staying at home.”(ID 1886)
3.3. Resilience and Adaptation
3.3.1. Self-Reliance
Cultivating Land
“I have difficulty finding what to feed my children. I am suffering so much. My children don’t even have what to wear as we don’t have things to do here. I am cultivating beans on this rock, but cows and goats are sent to eat our production, that is why raising these children is a very serious issue for me… If I don’t carry burdens, my children can’t find what to eat and what to put on their bodies.”(ID 2010)
“I go to the fields to cultivate for people in exchange for money so as to feed my child. The father of the child doesn’t care about him. I do my best to find something for him. I don’t know what to do; maybe I will be going to the fields where they give CDF 2000, so I will be saving a half and consume a half. I can’t start up an economic activity with that amount.”(ID 1806)
Micro-Businesses
“I raised 6 children without living with their father. It was in Masisi. I work menial jobs in order to feed them and provide them with health care. Nobody supports me. I came here because of poverty. I am currently living with 3 young children here. I am used to searching for firewood to feed my children.”(ID 2007)
“For the time being, my child is now in 3rd form primary school. I don’t have any good occupation to raise him properly in good conditions. I take out loans that I pay with interest at Kituku in order to do small business. I get something that I use to pay school fees and feed him.”(ID 1685)
Life is very difficult. My only job is selling firewood. If I get a small amount from a sale, I take that to school to pay their school fees. They eat difficultly. For example, I have CDF500 I buy potatoes that I cook for them in the morning, and when they come from school, they take the remaining.(ID 1679)
3.3.2. Support
Lack of External Support
Need for Additional Assistance
“My children study difficultly. When they chase them from school, I don’t feel okay. They are fatherless. I feel worried about that. If I get someone to help me, my children can study. I didn’t have a chance of going to school, so I say that the only legacy I can leave to my children is to make sure I send them to school.”(ID 2014)
“…My husband has left me again. I am only living with my uncle’s wife whom I help her deal with her business... My request is to have my own start-up capital to be self-reliant financially.”(ID 1955)
4. Discussion
4.1. Implications for Research and Practice
4.2. Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
Appendix A
Micronarrative Prompts | |
Think of an example of successful or unsuccessful child rearing in this community. Describe an example for a specific child | Micronarrative recorded by participant |
Think about what makes it easier or more difficult to raise a child in this community. Describe a specific parenting situation that illustrates this for a particular child | Micronarrative recorded by participant |
Think of a time of when you were proud of or disappointed in your parenting or the parenting of someone you know. Tell us that story as it relates to a specific child. | Micronarrative recorded by participant |
Dyads | |
In the shared story, do you think the child was… | (1) Overparented (2) Underparented or a combination in-between the two extremes |
In the parenting situation you talked about, supports were… | (1) Imposed upon the parent (2) Very difficult for the parent to obtain or a combination in-between the two extremes |
Thinking of the story you shared, was time focused… | (1) On the present (2) On the future or a combination in-between the two extremes |
Triads | |
The parenting strategies in the story involved… | (1) Relying on family/friends (2) Using services (3) Self-reliance |
What motivated the parenting behaviour in the story? | (1) Needs of the present (2) Cultural expectations (3) Child wellbeing |
In the story shared, priority was placed on… | (1) Child’s needs (2) Parent’s needs (3) Family’s needs |
What external factors primarily influenced parenting in the story? | (1) Availability of resources (2) Safety (3) Cultural norms |
If parenting in the story was successful, what would be the most important outcome for the child when they grow up? | (1) Happiness (2) Financial stability (3) Having own family |
Stones | |
In the story shared, how effective was each of the following: Physical discipline Withholding things Showing affection Reasoning Controlling the child’s activities Yelling Shaming Rewards Ignoring or Neglect | X-axis = Effective for short term: little → a lot Y-axis = Effective for the long term: little → a lot |
How helpful would each of the following be to support the parenting of the child in your story? Access to education Health services Child welfare services Financial resources Parenting instruction Women’s programs Men’s programs | X-axis = For child: little → a lot Y-axis = For parent(s): little → a lot |
Multiple Choice Questions About the Micronarrative | |
Who was the child in the story? | (1) My child (2) A child in my extended family (3) A child in my community (4) A child I heard or read about (5) Prefer not to say |
How do you feel about this story? | (1) Negative (2) Neutral (3) Positive (4) Strongly positive |
What degree of adversity was the family in the story facing? | (1) None (2) Very little (3) Some (4) A lot (5) Extreme (6) Not sure |
How does this story make you feel (choose up to 3)? | (1) Afraid (2) Angry (3) Ashamed (4) Disappointed (5) Embarrassed (6) Frustrated (7) Happy (8) Helpless (9) Hopeful (10) Relieved (11) Sad (12) Worried (13) Not sure |
What was the age of the child in the story? | (1) Less than a year (2) 1–5 years (3) 6–11 years (4) 12 to 18 years (5) 19 or older (6) Not sure |
What is the sex of the child in the story? | (1) Male (2) Female (3) Other |
What is the age of the mother in the story? | (1) Under 18 (2) 19–40 years (3) Over 40 years (4) Not sure (5) No mother in story |
What is the age of the father in the story? | (1) Under 18 (2) 19–40 years (3) Over 40 years (4) Not sure (5) No father in story |
Relative to the wealth level of other households in the community, is the family in your story... | (1) Wealthier than most in the community (2) Had the same money as most in their community (3) Was poorer than most in their community (4) Not sure |
Is the family in the story from any of the following groups? (choose all that apply) | (1) Ethnic minority (2) Indigenous (3) Refugee (4) Internally displaced (5) Economic migrant (6) Conflict-affected (7) Disaster-affected (8) Poverty (9) Child with a disability (10) Parent with a disability (11) Person living with a physical or mental health condition (12) Unsure (13) None of the above (14) Other (please specify)_________ |
Who is primarily parenting the child in your story? (pick up to three) | (1) Mother (2) Father (3) Step mother (4) Step father (5) Sister(s) (6) Brother(s) (7) Maternal grandparents (8) Paternal grandparents (9) Other family member (10) Other non-family member (11) Child is an orphan (12) Foster parent (13) Other (14) None |
With whom of the following does the child in your story live? (pick all that apply) | (1) Mother (2) Father (3) Step mother (4) Step father (5) Sister(s) (6) Brother(s) (7) Maternal grandparents (8) Paternal grandparents (9) Other family member (10) Other non-family member (11) Foster parent(s) (12) Other (13) None |
Multiple Choice Questions About the Participant | |
What is your age (years)? | (1) 12–17 (2) 18–24 (3) 25–34 (4) 35–44 (5) 45–54 (6) 55–64 (7) 65 or older (8) Prefer not to say |
Do you self-identify as: | (1) Ethnic minority (2) Indigenous (3) Refugee (4) Internally displaced (5) Economic migrant (6) Conflict-affected (7) Disaster-affected (8) Poverty (9) Person with a disability (10) Person with a physical or mental health condition (11) Unsure (12) None (13) Other (please specify)________ |
Research Assistant Questions | |
Was violence mentioned in the story? | (1) Sexual (2) Physical (3) Domestic (4) Emotional (5) None |
Does the story mention any of the following adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)? | (1) Physical neglect (2) Emotional neglect (3) Incarceration (4) Mental health or attempted suicide of parent Substance abuse (5) Loss of parent through divorce/separation/death |
Which disability type, if any, was mentioned in the story? | (1) Intellectual (2) Physical (3) Hearing (4) Visual (5) Psychosocial (6) Other (7) None |
Is this a story about parenting in adversity? | (1) Yes (2) No (3) Unsure |
Where did this interview take place? | (1) Sake (2) Lac Vert (3) Mugunga (4) Nyiragongo |
What is the gender of the narrator? | (1) Female (2) Male (3) Other (4) I don’t know |
What story number is this for the participant? | 1st 2nd 3rd 4th |
Comments |
References
- IAGCI. Country Policy and Information Note—Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC): Gender Based Violence. 2018. Available online: https://www.refworld.org/docid/5ba8d7a44.html (accessed on 10 September 2021).
- Mbambi, A.M.; Faray-Kele, M.-C. Gender Inequality and Social Institutions in the D.R. Congo. Available online: https://www.peacewomen.org/sites/default/files/hrinst_genderinequalityinthedrc_wilpf_december2010english_0.pdf (accessed on 8 September 2021).
- Richter, L.M.; Dawes, A.R.L. Child abuse in South Africa: Rights and wrongs. Child Abus. Rev. 2008, 17, 79–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaydosh, L. Childhood Risk of Parental Absence in Tanzania. Demography 2015, 52, 1121–1146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Clark, S.; Hamplová, D. Single Motherhood and Child Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Life Course Perspective. Demography 2013, 50, 1521–1549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ntoimo, L.F.C.; Odimegwu, C.O. Health effects of single motherhood on children in sub-Saharan Africa: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 1145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Richter, L.; Chikovore, J.; Makusha, T. The Status of Fatherhood and Fathering in South Africa. Child. Educ. 2010, 86, 360–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Omariba, W.; Boyle, M.H. Family Structure and Child Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa: Cross-National Effects of Polygyny. J. Marriage Fam. 2007, 69, 528–543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thiombiano, B.G.; Legrand, T.K.; Kobiané, J.-F. Effects of Parental Union Dissolution on Child Mortality and Child Schooling in Burkina Faso. Demogr. Res. 2013, 29, 797–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sikweyiya, Y.; Nduna, M.; Khuzwayo, N.; Mthombeni, A.; Mashamba-Thompson, T. Gender-based violence and absent fathers: A scoping review protocol. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e010154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Garenne, M.; Tollman, S.; Kahn, K. Premarital Fertility in Rural South Africa: A Challenge to Existing Population Policy. Stud. Fam. Plan. 2000, 31, 47–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leerlooijer, J.N.; Bos, A.E.R.; Ruiter, R.A.C.; Reeuwijk, M.A.J.V.; Rijsdijk, L.E.; Nshakira, N.; Kok, G. Qualitative evaluation of the Teenage Mothers Project in Uganda: A community-based empowerment intervention for unmarried teenage mothers. BMC Public Health 2013, 13, 816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Smith-Greenaway, E. Premarital childbearing in sub-Saharan Africa: Can investing in women’s education offset disadvantages for children? SSM Popul. Health 2016, 2, 164–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hartog, K.; Peters, R.M.H.; Jordans, M.J.D. Understanding Stigmatisation: Results of a Qualitative Formative Study with Adolescents and Adults in DR Congo. Found. Sci. 2020, 1–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamin, A.E.; Bazile, J.; Knight, L.; Molla, M.; Maistrellis, E.; Leaning, J. Tracing shadows: How gendered power relations shape the impacts of maternal death on living children in sub-Saharan Africa. Soc. Sci. Med. 2015, 135, 143–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Odimegwu, C.O.; Mutanda, N.; Mbanefo, C.M. Correlates of Single Motherhood in Four Sub-Saharan African Countries. J. Comp. Fam. Stud. 2017, 48, 313–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dlamini, N.S. Measurement and characteristics of single mothers in South Africa: Analysis using the 2002 general household survey. Master’s Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal. 2006. Available online: https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10413/1610/Dlamini_NS_2006.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 10 September 2021).
- Goldberg, R.E. Family Instability and Pathways to Adulthood in Cape Town, South Africa. Popul. Dev. Rev. 2013, 39, 231–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van de Walle, D. Lasting Welfare Effects of Widowhood in a Poor Country; 2011. Available online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/3498/WPS5734.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 10 September 2021).
- Mokomane, Z. Cohabitation in Botswana: An Alternative or a Prelude. Afr. Popul. Stud. 2013, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abuya, B.A.; Mutisya, M.; Onsomu, E.; Ngware, M.; Oketch, M. Family Structure and Child Educational Attainment in the Slums of Nairobi, Kenya. SAGE Open 2019, 9, 2158244019855849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Amoateng, A.Y.; Heaton, T.B.; McAlmont, C. Family Structure and Children’s Schooling in sub-Saharan Africa. Afr. Sociol. Rev./Rev. Afr. De Sociol. 2017, 21, 77–98. [Google Scholar]
- Bello, C.B.; Irinoye, O.; Akpor, O.A. Health status of families: A comparative study of one-parent and two-parent families in Ondo State, Nigeria. Afr. J. Prim. Health Care Fam. Med. 2018, 10, e1–e8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Roman, N. Maternal parenting in single and two-parent families in South Africa from a child’s perspective. Soc. Behav. Personal. Int. J. 2011, 39, 577–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glass, N.; Kohli, A.; Surkan, P.J.; Remy, M.M.; Perrin, N. The relationship between parent mental health and intimate partner violence on adolescent behavior, stigma and school attendance in families in rural Democratic Republic of Congo. Glob. Ment. Health 2018, 5, e20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Felitti, V.J.; Anda, R.F.; Nordenberg, D.; Williamson, D.F.; Spitz, A.M.; Edwards, V.; Koss, M.P.; Marks, J.S. Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 1998, 14, 245–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webster, L. Are my eyes tricking me? Available online: http://qedinsight.com/2015/06/04/are-my-eyes-tricking-me/ (accessed on 8 September 2021).
- Webster, L. The Art and Science of Story Patterns. Available online: http://qedinsight.com/resources/library/november-2014-webinar/ (accessed on 8 September 2021).
- DeLong, S. Statistics in the Triad, Part IV: Confidence Regions. Available online: http://qedinsight.com/2017/07/08/confidence-regions/ (accessed on 8 September 2021).
- Braun, V.; Clarke, V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 2006, 3, 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- LeVine, R.A.; LeVine, S.; Schnell-Anzola, B.; Rowe, M.L.; Dexter, E. Literacy and Mothering: How Women’s Schooling Changes the Lives of the World’s Children; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Madre, S.; 157 Congolese Civil Society Organizations. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination against Women and Girls in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A Report for the UN Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. 2018. Available online: https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/COD/INT_CEDAW_ICO_COD_32830_E.pdf (accessed on 27 September 2021).
- United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report. 2019. Available online: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf (accessed on 3 July 2020).
- Bapolisi, W.A.; Ferrari, G.; Blampain, C.; Makelele, J.; Kono-Tange, L.; Bisimwa, G.; Merten, S. Impact of a complex gender-transformative intervention on maternal and child health outcomes in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Protocol of a longitudinal parallel mixed-methods study. BMC Public Health 2020, 20, 51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Amos, P.M. Parenting and Culture—Evidence from Some African Communities. InTechOpen Book Series. 2013. Available online: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/45760 (accessed on 10 September 2021).
- Gage-Brandon, A.J.; Meekers, D. Sex, Contraception and Childbearing Before Marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. Fam. Plan. Perspect. 1993, 19, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bray, R.; Dawes, A. Parenting, Family Care and Adolescence in East and Southern Africa: An Evidence-Focused Literature Review. Innocenti Discussion Papers no. 2016-02. UNICEF Office of Research—Innocenti: Florence. 2016. Available online: https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/856-parenting-family-care-and-adolescence-in-east-and-southern-africa-an-evidence-focused.html (accessed on 1 October 2021).
- Titeca, K.; De Herdt, T. Real governance beyond the ‘failed state’: Negotiating education in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Afr. Aff. 2011, 110, 213–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- UNICEF. Global Goals: Sustainable Development for Every Child’s Future. 2020. Available online: https://www.unicef.ca/en/global-goals-sustainable-development-for-every-child’s-future#:~:text=By%20achieving%20the%20Global%20Goals,peaceful%2C%20prosperous%20and%20sustainable%20world (accessed on 30 September 2021).
- Kandala, N.-B.; Mandungu, T.P.; Mbela, K.; Nzita, K.P.D.; Kalambayi, B.B.; Kayembe, K.P.; Emina, J.B.O. Child mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Cross-sectional evidence of the effect of geographic location and prolonged conflict from a national household survey. BMC Public Health 2014, 14, 266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Derose, L.F.; Salazar-Arango, A.; García, P.C.; Gas-Aixendri, M.; Rivera, R. Maternal union instability and childhood mortality risk in the Global South, 2010–2014. Popul. Stud. 2017, 71, 211–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Rooyen, C.; Stewart, R.; de Wet, T. The Impact of Microfinance in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review of the Evidence. World Dev. 2012, 40, 2249–2262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Afriyie, K.; Ganle, J.K.; Segbefia, A.Y.; Kamau, P.; Wamue-Ngare, G. Contextual Factors Which Affect the Success of Microcredit Programs Among Women. J. Dev. Soc. 2020, 36, 229–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brixiová, Z.; Kangoye, T.; Tregenna, F. Enterprising Women in Southern Africa: When Does Land Ownership Matter? J. Fam. Econ. Issues 2020, 41, 37–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sackeyfio, N. Gender, Microfinance, and Microcredit in West Africa: Empowerment for Whom? New Politi Sci. 2021, 43, 86–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raniga, T. Participatory Experiences of Women in Economic Development Cooperatives in Bhambayi, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Res. Soc. Work. Pr. 2016, 27, 215–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Demographic | All Participants (n (%)) | Single Mother Participants (n (%)) | Two-Parent Family Participants (n (%)) | * p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age of participant (years) | 0.389 | |||
12–17 | 5 (1.12) | 5 (1.9) | 0 (0) | |
18–24 | 72 (16.18) | 50 (19.01) | 22 (12.09) | |
25–34 | 137 (30.79) | 65 (24.71) | 72 (39.56) | |
35–44 | 121 (27.19) | 66 (25.10) | 55 (30.22) | |
45–54 | 81 (18.20) | 54 (20.53.17) | 27 (14.84) | |
Prefer not to say | 29 (6.52) | 23 (8.75) | 6 (3.30) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
Age of child in story (years) | 0.375 | |||
Less than a year | 11 (2.47) | 8 (3.04) | 3 (1.65) | |
1–5 years | 92 (20.67) | 53 (20.15) | 39 (21.43) | |
6–11 years | 108 (24.27) | 60 (22.81) | 48 (26.37) | |
12–18 years | 130 (29.21) | 72 (27.38) | 58 (31.87) | |
19 years or older | 60 (13.48) | 41 (15.59) | 19 (10.44) | |
Not sure | 44 (9.89) | 29 (11.03) | 15 (8.24) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
Sex of child in the story | 0.628 | |||
Female | 220 (49.44) | 135 (51.33) | 86 (47.25) | |
Male | 200 (44.94) | 114 (43.35) | 85 (46.70) | |
Other | 25 (5.62) | 14 (5.32) | 11 (6.04) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
** Disability in the family | 0.022 | |||
No disability | 315 (66.74) | 178 (67.94) | 137 (72.90) | |
Physical | 80 (16.95) | 52 (19.85) | 28 (14.90) | |
Psychosocial | 39 (8.26) | 32 (12.21) | 7 (3.70) | |
Intellectual | 16 (3.39) | 8 (3.05) | 8 (4.30) | |
Hearing | 7 (1.48) | 3 (1.15) | 4 (2.13) | |
Visual | 8 (1.70) | 6 (2.29) | 2 (1.10) | |
Other | 7 (1.48) | 5 (1.91) | 2 (1.10) | |
Total | 472 (100) | 284 (100) | 188 (100) | |
Relative wealth compared to other community households | 0.563 | |||
Poorer | 265 (59.55) | 155 (58.94) | 110 (60.44) | |
Same money | 49 (11.01) | 27 (10.27) | 22 (12.09) | |
Wealthier | 11 (2.47) | 8 (3.04) | 3 (1.65) | |
Not sure | 120 (26.97) | 73 (27.76) | 47 (25.82) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
Location of interview | 0.065 | |||
Nyiragongo | 180 (40.45) | 93 (35.36) | 87 (47.80) | |
Sake | 89 (20.00) | 59 (22.43) | 30 (16.48) | |
Lac Vert | 90 (20.22) | 56 (20.91) | 34 (18.68) | |
Mugunga | 86 (19.33) | 55 (21.29) | 31 (17.03) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
Degree of Adversity | 0.293 | |||
None | 34 (7.64) | 20 (7.60) | 14 (7.69) | |
Very little | 11 (2.47) | 7 (2.66) | 4 (2.20) | |
Some | 34 (7.64) | 16 (6.08) | 18 (9.89) | |
A lot | 152 (34.16) | 86 (32.70) | 66 (32.26) | |
Extreme | 213 (47.87) | 134 (50.95) | 79 (43.41) | |
Not sure | 1 (0.22) | 0 (0) | 1 (0.55) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
Emotional tone of story | <0.0001 | |||
Negative | 331 (74.38) | 214 (81.37) | 117 (64.29) | |
Positive | 86 (19.33) | 43 (16.35) | 43 (23.63) | |
Neutral | 28 (6.29) | 6 (2.28) | 22 (12.09) | |
Total | 445 (100) | 263 (100) | 182 (100) | |
** Household Adversity | <0.0001 | |||
No adverse experience | 242 (49.49) | 121 (39.93) | 121 (65.05) | |
Physical neglect | 89 (18.20) | 60 (19.80) | 29 (15.59) | |
Child is an orphan | 56 (11.45) | 49 (16.17) | 7 (3.76) | |
Emotional neglect | 40 (8.18) | 25 (8.25) | 15 (8.06) | |
Mental health/suicide | 39 (7.98) | 29 (9.57) | 10 (5.38) | |
Loss of parent | 14 (2.86) | 13 (4.29) | 1 (0.537) | |
Substance abuse | 9 (1.84) | 6 (1.98) | 3 (1.61) | |
Incarceration | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Total | 489 (100) | 303 (100) | 186 (100) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Callaghan, M.A.; Watchiba, D.; Purkey, E.; Davison, C.M.; Aldersey, H.M.; Bartels, S.A. “I Don’t Know Where I Have to Knock for Support”: A Mixed-Methods Study on Perceptions and Experiences of Single Mothers Raising Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10399. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910399
Callaghan MA, Watchiba D, Purkey E, Davison CM, Aldersey HM, Bartels SA. “I Don’t Know Where I Have to Knock for Support”: A Mixed-Methods Study on Perceptions and Experiences of Single Mothers Raising Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10399. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910399
Chicago/Turabian StyleCallaghan, Mikyla A., Dédé Watchiba, Eva Purkey, Colleen M. Davison, Heather M. Aldersey, and Susan A. Bartels. 2021. "“I Don’t Know Where I Have to Knock for Support”: A Mixed-Methods Study on Perceptions and Experiences of Single Mothers Raising Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10399. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910399