Soil Lead (Pb) in New Orleans: A Spatiotemporal and Racial Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Soil Lead Data
2.2. Children’s Blood Pb Data
2.3. Interpolated Soil Pb and Blood Pb Data
2.4. Spatial–Temporal Analysis
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
Environmental Signaling Over Time and Distance
4. Discussion
4.1. Spatial–Temporal Distribution of Soil Pb and Blood Pb: Environmental Injustice for Black Populations
4.2. Potential Implications for COVID-19
4.3. Actions for Primary Prevention for Soil Pb
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dist. MPO km | Area km2 | Pop.km2 | % White | % Black | % Other | SPb mg/kg | BPb µg/dL | Household Income US$ | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | |||||||||
NEAR | |||||||||
N of Census Tracts | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 |
Minimum | 0.0 | 0.1 | 294 | 0.0 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 35 | 3.0 | 4621 |
50% | 3.8 | 0.6 | 3892 | 23.0 | 72.7 | 3.1 | 410 | 5.7 | 21,981 |
Maximum | 6.2 | 6.4 | 15,527 | 97.4 | 99.5 | 24.8 | 1774 | 10.6 | 109,721 |
FAR | |||||||||
N of Census Tracts | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 147 | 146 |
Minimum | 6.2 | 0.5 | 22 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 6 | 2.1 | 16,250 |
50% | 10.2 | 1.6 | 2388 | 78.1 | 12.7 | 4.2 | 44 | 3.0 | 37,919 |
Maximum | 20.9 | 18.8 | 6476 | 98.7 | 100.0 | 21.5 | 237 | 5.0 | 146,158 |
p-Value | 2.5 × 10−53 | 1.7 × 10−26 | 1.4 × 10−19 | 5.2 × 10−14 | 1.8 × 10−14 | 4.3 × 10−5 | 4.8 × 10−40 | 2.1 × 10−42 | 2.4 × 10−22 |
Mielke’s R | 0.425 | 0.143 | 0.127 | 0.130 | 0.138 | 0.028 | 0.349 | 0.411 | 0.149 |
2015 | |||||||||
NEAR | |||||||||
N of Census Tracts | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 141 |
Minimum | 0.4 | 0.16 | 307 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 16 | 1.0 | 8738 |
50% | 3.9 | 0.64 | 2813 | 40.8 | 51.5 | 4.4 | 187 | 2.1 | 30,917 |
Maximum | 6.7 | 5.05 | 7702 | 97.0 | 100.0 | 21.1 | 910 | 4.9 | 155,714 |
FAR | |||||||||
N of Census Tracts | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 | 143 |
Minimum | 6.7 | 0.46 | 98 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 6 | 0.5 | 18,114 |
50% | 10.6 | 1.44 | 2170 | 71.5 | 17.0 | 5.5 | 25 | 1.0 | 44,357 |
Maximum | 20.9 | 18.65 | 6900 | 99.4 | 100.0 | 24.9 | 127 | 3.3 | 161,250 |
p-Value | 4.2 × 10−53 | 8.7 × 10−22 | 1.2 × 10−9 | 5.8 × 10−5 | 2.0 × 10−5 | 0.016 | 1.4 × 10−34 | 2.6 × 10−35 | 5.1 × 10−6 |
Mielke’s R | 0.437 | 0.115 | 0.062 | 0.036 | 0.042 | 0.010 | 0.301 | 0.335 | 0.035 |
SECTOR MEDIANS | ||||||||||
2000–2005 | N | Main PO | Main PO | Pop. | SPb | BPb | Household | |||
Sector | CTs | MIN DIST km | MAX DIST km | Density | % White | % Black | % Other | Soil Pb (interp.) | Blood Pb (interp.) | Income US$ |
1 | 30 | 0.00 | 2.32 | 4506 | 21.90 | 74.80 | 3.08 | 615 | 6.8 | 11,950 |
2 | 29 | 2.36 | 3.25 | 5122 | 14.77 | 82.11 | 3.27 | 541 | 6.3 | 21,619 |
3 | 29 | 3.27 | 4.22 | 4129 | 22.99 | 74.37 | 2.81 | 505 | 5.7 | 21,456 |
4 | 30 | 4.30 | 5.31 | 3786 | 27.31 | 70.46 | 2.73 | 275 | 5.0 | 23,608 |
5 | 29 | 5.31 | 6.16 | 2589 | 22.85 | 72.60 | 3.37 | 133 | 4.0 | 27,526 |
6 | 29 | 6.19 | 7.45 | 2344 | 64.97 | 26.29 | 3.62 | 69 | 3.0 | 33,839 |
7 | 30 | 7.57 | 8.93 | 2377 | 77.75 | 15.04 | 4.13 | 55 | 3.0 | 40,014 |
8 | 29 | 8.97 | 11.60 | 2388 | 87.36 | 5.11 | 4.16 | 47 | 3.0 | 34,250 |
9 | 29 | 11.81 | 14.97 | 2577 | 91.18 | 1.38 | 3.03 | 44 | 3.0 | 40,086 |
10 | 30 | 14.97 | 20.92 | 1990 | 74.79 | 15.92 | 6.03 | 22 | 3.0 | 39,699 |
TOTAL | 294 | |||||||||
SECTOR MEDIANS | ||||||||||
2011–2015 | N | Main PO | Main PO | Pop. | SPb | BPb | Household | |||
Sector | CTs | MIN DIST km | MAX DIST km | Density | % White | % Black | % Other | Soil Pb (interp.) | Blood Pb (interp.) | Income US$ |
1 | 29 | 0.38 | 2.49 | 3610 | 29.17 | 64.74 | 4.78 | 282 | 2.4 | 25,389 |
2 | 28 | 2.50 | 3.36 | 3632 | 31.16 | 61.83 | 4.67 | 254 | 2.5 | 28,927 |
3 | 29 | 3.38 | 4.38 | 2707 | 48.33 | 43.29 | 4.37 | 215 | 2.2 | 34,583 |
4 | 28 | 4.38 | 5.41 | 2582 | 46.18 | 45.07 | 4.30 | 135 | 1.9 | 34,822 |
5 | 29 | 5.43 | 6.66 | 1981 | 40.48 | 48.30 | 4.27 | 45 | 1.4 | 41,172 |
6 | 28 | 6.73 | 8.01 | 2076 | 42.63 | 50.68 | 5.39 | 36 | 1.2 | 38,312 |
7 | 29 | 8.05 | 9.50 | 1980 | 77.36 | 16.56 | 5.35 | 26 | 1.0 | 44,984 |
8 | 28 | 9.56 | 12.04 | 2216 | 70.40 | 18.77 | 5.49 | 32 | 1.0 | 39,224 |
9 | 29 | 12.24 | 14.98 | 2233 | 80.83 | 9.44 | 4.54 | 23 | 1.0 | 52,422 |
10 | 29 | 15.03 | 20.92 | 2040 | 71.46 | 16.07 | 9.22 | 17 | 1.0 | 47,679 |
TOTAL | 286 |
Pre-Existing Condition for COVID-19 Comorbidity | Association with Pb Exposure | References |
---|---|---|
High blood pressure (Hypertension) | Most studied cardiovascular outcome of Pb exposure, effects may occur at BPb ≤ 5 µg/dL. | Apostoli et al., 1990 [46]; Bertin de Almeida Lopes et al., 2017 [47] |
Coronary heart disease (CHD) | A positive dose–response relationship at BPb ≤ 10 µg/dL is an all-cause mortality and mortality cause of coronary heart disease. | Menke et al., 2006 [48]; Schober et al., 2006 [49] |
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) | Over a BPb range of ≤10 µg/dL and BPb > 50 µg/dL, workers had decreased pulmonary function, obstructive pulmonary disease, increased asthma, and shortness of breath compared to controls. | Chung et al., 2015 [50]; Pugh Smith and Nriagu, 2011 [51] |
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) | Exposure of BPb (≤ 10 ≥ 50 µg/dL) alters kidney function and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Renal nephrotoxicity severity is associated with increasing BPb. | Muntner et al., 2003 [52]; Pollack, 2015 [53] |
Inflammation, immune system disorders and lymphatic system dysfunction | Elevated BPb (≥10 µg/dL) is an important factor in autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and edema. | Boskabady et al., 2018 [54]; Mishra et al., 2009 [55]; CDC, 1991 [56]; Aghdam et al., 2019 [57] |
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Egendorf, S.P.; Mielke, H.W.; Castorena-Gonzalez, J.A.; Powell, E.T.; Gonzales, C.R. Soil Lead (Pb) in New Orleans: A Spatiotemporal and Racial Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031314
Egendorf SP, Mielke HW, Castorena-Gonzalez JA, Powell ET, Gonzales CR. Soil Lead (Pb) in New Orleans: A Spatiotemporal and Racial Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(3):1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031314
Chicago/Turabian StyleEgendorf, Sara Perl, Howard W. Mielke, Jorge A. Castorena-Gonzalez, Eric T. Powell, and Christopher R. Gonzales. 2021. "Soil Lead (Pb) in New Orleans: A Spatiotemporal and Racial Analysis" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 3: 1314. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031314