Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Data and Methods
2.1. Data
2.2. Variable Definitions
2.3. Descriptive Statistics
2.4. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Loneliness during the Pandemic
3.2. Who Became Lonely during the Pandemic?
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Definition |
---|---|
Loneliness | Dependent variables The extent to which respondents feel loneliness according to the UCLA methodology. The questions asked to measure respondents’ loneliness were “How often do you feel a lack of companionship”, “How often do you feel left out”, and “How often do you feel isolated from others”. The options to respond to these questions were “Hardly ever or never”, “Some of the time”, and “Often”. Loneliness is a binary variable from the 2021 dataset, where 1 indicates having feelings of loneliness some of the time or often, and 0 = otherwise. |
Became lonely | Binary variable: 1 = If a person was having feelings of loneliness some of the time or often in 2021 but not in 2020, and 0 = otherwise |
Male * | Explanatory variables Binary variable: 1 = Male and 0 = Female |
Age * | Continuous variable: Respondent’s age in 2021 |
Spouse | Binary variable: 1 = Currently have a spouse or partner and 0 = otherwise |
Recently Divorced | Binary variable: 1 = If a person recently got divorced in 2021, and 0 = otherwise |
Children | Binary variable: 1 = Having a child/children and 0 = otherwise |
Living alone | Binary variable: 1 = Living alone and 0 = Otherwise |
Became alone | Binary variable: 1 = If a person recently started living alone in 2021, and 0 = otherwise |
Living in rural | Binary variable: 1 = Living in rural areas (not Tokyo special wards or government-designated city areas) and 0 = Otherwise |
Education | Discrete variable: Years of education |
Employed | Binary variable: 1 = Respondent is employed and 0 = otherwise |
Left employment | Binary variable: 1 = If a person recently left an employment in 2021, and 0 = otherwise |
Household income | Continuous variable: Annual earned income before taxes and with bonuses of the entire household in 2020 (unit: JPY) |
Household assets | Continuous variable: Balance of financial assets (savings, stocks, bonds, insurance, etc.) of entire household (unit: JPY) |
Financial literacy * | Continuous variable: Average correct answers to three financial literacy questions |
Subjective health status | Ordinal variable: 1 = It does not hold true at all for you; 2 = It is not so true for you; 3 = Neither true nor not true; 4 = It is rather true for you; 5 = It is particularly true for you for the statement “I am now healthy and was generally healthy in the last one year”. |
Future anxiety | Ordinal variable: 1 = It does not hold true at all for you; 2 = It is not so true for you; 3 = Neither true nor not true; 4 = It is rather true for you; 5 = It is particularly true for you for the statement “I have anxieties about ‘life after 65 years of age’ (For those who were already aged 65 years or above, ‘life in the future’)”. |
Financial satisfaction | Ordinal variable: 1 = Completely disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neither agree nor disagree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Completely agree, for the statement, “Since the future is uncertain, it is a waste to think about it”. I am happy with my financial status”. |
Depression | Ordinal variable: 1 = It does not hold true at all for you; 2 = It is not so true for you; 3 = Neither true nor not true; 4 = It is rather true for you; 5 = It is particularly true for you, for the statement, “I often feel depressed or felt depressed in the last one year”. |
Myopic view of the future | Ordinal variable: 1 = Completely disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neither agree nor disagree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Completely agree with the statement “As the future is uncertain, it is a waste to think about it”. |
Variable | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables Loneliness | 0.7356 | 0.4411 | 0 | 1 |
Became lonely | 0.1172 | 0.3217 | 0 | 1 |
Explanatory variables | ||||
Male | 0.6692 | 0.4705 | 0 | 1 |
Age | 50.9899 | 13.6407 | 21 | 86 |
Spouse | 0.6703 | 0.4702 | 0 | 1 |
Children | 0.5838 | 0.4930 | 0 | 1 |
Living alone | 0.2011 | 0.4009 | 0 | 1 |
Living in rural | 0.5787 | 0.4938 | 0 | 1 |
Education | 15.0140 | 2.0943 | 9 | 21 |
Employed | 0.6402 | 0.4800 | 0 | 1 |
Household income * | 6.4605 | 4.1333 | 0.50 | 21 |
Household assets * | 21.0000 | 29.9000 | 1.25 | 125 |
Financial literacy | 0.6804 | 0.3426 | 0 | 1 |
Subjective health status | 3.2557 | 1.0829 | 1 | 5 |
Future anxiety | 3.6924 | 1.1427 | 1 | 5 |
Financial satisfaction | 2.7664 | 1.1144 | 1 | 5 |
Depression | 2.9491 | 1.2167 | 1 | 5 |
Myopic view of the future | 2.6740 | 1.0223 | 1 | 5 |
Observations | 3755 |
Loneliness | Male | Females | Total | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | ||
0 | 64 | 161 | 266 | 207 | 57 | 96 | 87 | 55 | 993 |
28.07% | 20.15% | 27.71% | 39.35% | 15.88% | 20.00% | 29.19% | 52.38% | 26.44% | |
1 | 164 | 638 | 694 | 319 | 302 | 384 | 211 | 50 | 2762 |
71.93% | 79.85% | 72.29% | 60.65% | 84.12% | 80.00% | 70.81% | 47.62% | 73.56% | |
Total | 228 | 799 | 960 | 526 | 359 | 480 | 298 | 105 | 3755 |
100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | |
Mean difference | F = 19.87 *** | F = 24.06 *** | |||||||
F = 19.31 *** |
Became Lonely | Male | Females | Total | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | ||
0 | 199 | 717 | 876 | 455 | 307 | 422 | 247 | 92 | 3315 |
87.28% | 89.74% | 91.25% | 86.50% | 85.52% | 87.92% | 82.89% | 87.62% | 88.28% | |
1 | 29 | 82 | 84 | 71 | 52 | 58 | 51 | 13 | 440 |
12.72% | 10.26% | 8.75% | 13.50% | 14.48% | 12.08% | 17.11% | 12.38% | 11.72% | |
Total | 228 | 799 | 960 | 526 | 359 | 480 | 298 | 105 | 3755 |
100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | 100% | |
Mean difference | F = 3.11 ** | F = 1.39 | |||||||
F = 3.27 *** |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Loneliness | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
Male | 0.305 * | 0.193 | 0.221 | 0.281 |
(0.170) | (0.169) | (0.180) | (0.192) | |
Age | −0.0315 *** | −0.0271 *** | −0.0241 *** | −0.0230 *** |
(0.00734) | (0.00733) | (0.00777) | (0.00816) | |
Spouse | 0.116 | 0.161 | 0.121 | 0.180 |
(0.200) | (0.197) | (0.199) | (0.230) | |
Children | −0.531 *** | −0.514 *** | −0.444 *** | −0.416 *** |
(0.149) | (0.149) | (0.162) | (0.157) | |
Living alone | 0.0458 | −0.197 | −0.0569 | 0.00684 |
(0.220) | (0.228) | (0.231) | (0.253) | |
Living in rural | −0.0376 | −0.0592 | −0.100 | −0.0717 |
(0.152) | (0.145) | (0.153) | (0.158) | |
Education | 0.0203 | 0.0621 | 0.0734 | 0.0735 |
(0.0385) | (0.0425) | (0.0451) | (0.0468) | |
Employed | 0.0681 | 0.0178 | 0.0243 | |
(0.142) | (0.144) | (0.150) | ||
Log of HH income | −0.316 *** | −0.261 ** | −0.251 ** | |
(0.101) | (0.109) | (0.112) | ||
Log of HH assets | −0.162 *** | −0.104 | −0.133 * | |
(0.0575) | (0.0699) | (0.0735) | ||
Financial literacy | 0.184 | 0.121 | 0.236 | |
(0.184) | (0.193) | (0.198) | ||
Subjective health | −0.384 *** | −0.283 *** | ||
(0.0538) | (0.0546) | |||
Future Anxiety | 0.333 *** | 0.209 *** | ||
(0.0561) | (0.0624) | |||
Financial satisfaction | 0.0381 | 0.0789 | ||
(0.0774) | (0.0819) | |||
Depression | 0.396 *** | |||
(0.0563) | ||||
Myopic view of the future | 0.0435 | |||
(0.0576) | ||||
Constant | 2.269 *** | 8.826 *** | 6.779 *** | 5.566 *** |
(0.574) | (1.625) | (1.775) | (1.900) | |
Observations | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 63.62 | 78.50 | 197.8 | 235.7 |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Loneliness | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Females | |||||||
Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | |
Age | 0.0595 | 0.0296 | −0.0409 ** | 0.00280 | −0.0237 | 0.0121 | −0.0440 | −0.197 ** |
(0.0625) | (0.0225) | (0.0200) | (0.0310) | (0.0764) | (0.0307) | (0.0372) | (0.0836) | |
Spouse | −0.0881 | −0.405 | −0.110 | 1.771 ** | −0.894 | 0.215 | −0.0630 | −0.233 |
(0.705) | (0.322) | (0.289) | (0.709) | (0.576) | (0.386) | (0.562) | (1.024) | |
Children | −1.155 ** | 0.363 | −0.154 | −0.670 | −0.145 | −0.141 | −0.645 * | −0.429 |
(0.572) | (0.261) | (0.220) | (0.450) | (0.459) | (0.311) | (0.371) | (0.941) | |
Living alone | −1.417 ** | 0.562 * | 0.0559 | 1.590 * | −0.257 | 0.226 | −0.0335 | 1.586 |
(0.682) | (0.316) | (0.336) | (0.843) | (0.569) | (0.454) | (0.674) | (1.260) | |
Living in rural | 1.129 *** | 0.00320 | −0.0935 | 0.0785 | 0.232 | −0.543 ** | −0.151 | −0.0943 |
(0.420) | (0.191) | (0.163) | (0.245) | (0.299) | (0.248) | (0.307) | (0.531) | |
Education | 0.120 | 0.0273 | −0.0345 | −0.0329 | 0.150 | 0.0157 | −0.0508 | 0.127 |
(0.122) | (0.0483) | (0.0430) | (0.0701) | (0.105) | (0.0721) | (0.0980) | (0.160) | |
Employed | −0.271 | −0.0622 | −0.376 | −0.231 | −0.366 | 0.0853 | 0.154 | 0.0854 |
(0.863) | (0.430) | (0.266) | (0.264) | (0.370) | (0.293) | (0.369) | (0.847) | |
Log of HH income | −0.815 * | −0.109 | −0.160 | −0.480* | −0.324 | −0.227 | −0.168 | 0.113 |
(0.437) | (0.203) | (0.157) | (0.268) | (0.410) | (0.236) | (0.254) | (0.591) | |
Log of HH assets | 0.483 ** | 0.100 | 0.0770 | −0.0875 | −0.0666 | −0.0932 | −0.0563 | −0.396 |
(0.211) | (0.0872) | (0.0684) | (0.121) | (0.176) | (0.112) | (0.140) | (0.359) | |
Financial literacy | 0.484 | −0.0495 | −0.218 | −0.558 | −0.303 | 0.0397 | 0.602 | 1.921 * |
(0.595) | (0.306) | (0.287) | (0.548) | (0.491) | (0.347) | (0.448) | (1.012) | |
Subjective health | −0.135 | −0.282 *** | −0.220 *** | −0.212 * | −0.155 | −0.435 *** | −0.238 | −0.557 ** |
(0.217) | (0.0984) | (0.0780) | (0.121) | (0.164) | (0.128) | (0.163) | (0.278) | |
Future Anxiety | −0.0679 | 0.129 | 0.0733 | 0.214 | −0.0956 | 0.110 | 0.130 | 0.520 |
(0.205) | (0.0970) | (0.0798) | (0.150) | (0.185) | (0.120) | (0.156) | (0.356) | |
Financial satisfaction | −0.119 | −0.213 ** | −0.0563 | −0.00437 | 0.00110 | −0.00405 | 0.0248 | 0.961 *** |
(0.205) | (0.105) | (0.0892) | (0.162) | (0.212) | (0.144) | (0.161) | (0.357) | |
Depression | 0.593 *** | 0.332 *** | 0.617 *** | 0.242 * | 0.520 *** | 0.428 *** | 0.574 *** | 1.189 *** |
(0.216) | (0.0934) | (0.0816) | (0.135) | (0.160) | (0.118) | (0.151) | (0.414) | |
Myopic view of the future | 0.0446 | 0.154* | 0.0950 | 0.0557 | −0.0164 | −0.0501 | −0.171 | 0.620* |
(0.204) | (0.0931) | (0.0817) | (0.129) | (0.177) | (0.134) | (0.141) | (0.362) | |
Constant | 1.794 | −0.493 | 4.583 * | 8.137 * | 6.501 | 5.718 | 6.832 * | 7.883 |
(6.014) | (2.950) | (2.741) | (4.373) | (5.217) | (3.607) | (4.104) | (9.612) | |
Observations | 228 | 799 | 960 | 526 | 359 | 480 | 298 | 105 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 41.04 | 57.97 | 126.5 | 43.42 | 42.19 | 51.18 | 49.08 | 35.10 |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Became Lonely | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Model 5 | Model 6 | Model 7 | Model 8 | |
Male | −0.276 * | −0.368 ** | −0.354 ** | −0.359 ** |
(0.159) | (0.177) | (0.176) | (0.174) | |
Age | −0.00413 | 5.73 × 10−5 | −0.000689 | −0.000423 |
(0.00732) | (0.00810) | (0.00789) | (0.00790) | |
Spouse | 0.403 | 0.346 | 0.340 | 0.337 |
(0.249) | (0.252) | (0.254) | (0.254) | |
Children | 0.0176 | 0.000215 | −0.00159 | −0.00380 |
(0.167) | (0.170) | (0.171) | (0.171) | |
Living alone | 0.0112 | 0.0188 | −0.000270 | 0.00210 |
(0.252) | (0.263) | (0.264) | (0.263) | |
Living in rural | −0.174 | −0.165 | −0.160 | −0.163 |
(0.165) | (0.164) | (0.161) | (0.161) | |
Education | 0.0269 | 0.0170 | 0.0150 | 0.0126 |
(0.0397) | (0.0430) | (0.0420) | (0.0409) | |
Employed | 0.0888 | 0.101 | 0.103 | |
(0.161) | (0.160) | (0.159) | ||
Log of HH income | 0.152 | 0.121 | 0.120 | |
(0.127) | (0.125) | (0.124) | ||
Log of HH assets | −0.103 | −0.123 | −0.127 | |
(0.0768) | (0.0835) | (0.0823) | ||
Financial literacy | 0.297 | 0.307 | 0.291 | |
(0.232) | (0.234) | (0.240) | ||
Subjective health | 0.0531 | 0.0521 | ||
(0.0726) | (0.0744) | |||
Future Anxiety | 0.0400 | 0.0391 | ||
(0.0624) | (0.0655) | |||
Financial satisfaction | 0.120 | 0.123 | ||
(0.0837) | (0.0831) | |||
Depression | −0.00721 | |||
(0.0630) | ||||
Myopic view of the future | −0.0507 | |||
(0.0822) | ||||
Constant | −2.219 *** | −3.137 | −2.968 | −2.683 |
(0.748) | (1.993) | (1.948) | (1.932) | |
Observations | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 15.16 | 20.21 | 22.39 | 26.74 |
p-value | 0.034 | 0.043 | 0.071 | 0.045 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Became Lonely | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Females | |||||||
Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | |
Age | 0.193 *** | −0.00584 | 0.0289 | 0.0339 | −0.0746 | −0.0562 | 0.0857 * | 0.00362 |
(0.0571) | (0.0257) | (0.0284) | (0.0606) | (0.0588) | (0.0350) | (0.0467) | (0.107) | |
Spouse | 2.047 ** | 1.008 ** | −0.0895 | 1.605 ** | −1.019 * | 0.0885 | 1.107 * | −2.172 ** |
(0.888) | (0.476) | (0.490) | (0.656) | (0.545) | (0.509) | (0.567) | (1.091) | |
Children | −0.602 | −0.299 | 0.147 | 0.0189 | 0.961 ** | 0.394 | −0.352 | 0.788 |
(0.627) | (0.346) | (0.374) | (0.569) | (0.447) | (0.380) | (0.436) | (1.448) | |
Living alone | 1.555 | 0.423 | −0.622 | 1.010 | −0.277 | 0.916 * | 0.215 | −0.832 |
(0.996) | (0.461) | (0.523) | (0.674) | (0.604) | (0.531) | (0.704) | (1.188) | |
Living in rural | 0.626 | −0.138 | 0.200 | −0.361 | 0.508 | −0.257 | −0.392 | −0.832 |
(0.471) | (0.248) | (0.238) | (0.371) | (0.399) | (0.297) | (0.358) | (0.655) | |
Education | −0.206 | −0.0555 | −0.0513 | −0.0226 | −0.117 | 0.0818 | −0.166 * | 0.359 * |
(0.134) | (0.0545) | (0.0544) | (0.0993) | (0.113) | (0.0814) | (0.0970) | (0.214) | |
Employed | 0.176 | 0.585 | 0.0580 | 0.108 | 0.877 ** | 0.0186 | −0.00922 | −0.592 |
(0.929) | (0.640) | (0.388) | (0.389) | (0.412) | (0.354) | (0.416) | (1.110) | |
Log of HH income | 0.0417 | 0.0812 | −0.0751 | 0.300 | 0.398 | 0.308 | 0.0452 | 1.779 ** |
(0.532) | (0.304) | (0.207) | (0.303) | (0.347) | (0.281) | (0.234) | (0.864) | |
Log of HH assets | 0.257 | 0.113 | 0.0799 | −0.143 | −0.1000 | −0.0385 | −0.269 * | −1.103 ** |
(0.293) | (0.105) | (0.107) | (0.171) | (0.207) | (0.121) | (0.152) | (0.498) | |
Financial literacy | −0.262 | −0.0426 | 0.175 | 1.362 * | −0.216 | −0.785 * | 0.906 * | 2.080 |
(0.540) | (0.387) | (0.417) | (0.763) | (0.635) | (0.449) | (0.547) | (1.513) | |
Subjective health | 0.439 * | 0.109 | 0.160 | −0.108 | 0.0980 | −0.244 * | 0.0652 | −0.101 |
(0.241) | (0.120) | (0.122) | (0.156) | (0.208) | (0.139) | (0.178) | (0.402) | |
Future Anxiety | −0.0565 | −0.0394 | 0.0350 | 0.192 | 0.280 | −0.241 | 0.0597 | −0.336 |
(0.234) | (0.120) | (0.146) | (0.200) | (0.176) | (0.150) | (0.171) | (0.421) | |
Financial satisfaction | 0.376 | −0.0543 | −0.0697 | 0.399 | 0.0768 | 0.0402 | 0.270 | 0.153 |
(0.289) | (0.131) | (0.156) | (0.244) | (0.172) | (0.149) | (0.185) | (0.492) | |
Depression | 0.0277 | −0.185 | 0.0934 | 0.121 | −0.313 ** | −0.216 * | −0.0939 | 0.945 ** |
(0.199) | (0.120) | (0.108) | (0.187) | (0.158) | (0.129) | (0.146) | (0.421) | |
Myopic view of the future | 0.0679 | −0.119 | −0.0278 | −0.300 | −0.184 | 0.179 | 0.143 | 0.673 * |
(0.221) | (0.103) | (0.132) | (0.191) | (0.177) | (0.166) | (0.157) | (0.404) | |
Constant | −13.93 * | −4.379 | −4.255 | −9.829 | −3.070 | −3.115 | −2.865 | −20.08 |
(7.681) | (4.189) | (4.038) | (6.247) | (5.868) | (4.067) | (4.100) | (14.42) | |
Observations | 228 | 799 | 960 | 526 | 359 | 480 | 298 | 105 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 56.32 | 19.69 | 11.25 | 23.22 | 22.41 | 20.01 | 15.95 | 18.85 |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.184 | 0.735 | 0.080 | 0.097 | 0.172 | 0.385 | 0.221 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Became Lonely | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Model 9 | Model 10 | Model 11 | Model 12 | |
Male | −0.279 * | −0.300 * | −0.306 * | −0.265 |
(0.158) | (0.161) | (0.161) | (0.163) | |
Age | −0.00360 | −0.00491 | −0.00529 | −0.00677 |
(0.00728) | (0.00728) | (0.00737) | (0.00772) | |
Recently divorced | −0.849 | −0.823 | −0.858 | −0.818 |
(0.893) | (0.895) | (0.877) | (0.815) | |
Children | 0.221 | 0.226 | 0.233 | 0.221 |
(0.145) | (0.144) | (0.144) | (0.146) | |
Became alone | 0.226 | 0.246 | 0.289 | 0.220 |
(0.771) | (0.778) | (0.768) | (0.707) | |
Living in rural | −0.161 | −0.157 | −0.166 | −0.157 |
(0.164) | (0.166) | (0.164) | (0.172) | |
Education | 0.0335 | 0.0229 | 0.0236 | 0.0213 |
(0.0386) | (0.0403) | (0.0392) | (0.0411) | |
Left employment | −0.0478 | −0.0282 | −0.0138 | |
(0.315) | (0.317) | (0.317) | ||
Log of change in household income | 0.00809 | 0.0331 | 0.0341 | |
(0.191) | (0.190) | (0.196) | ||
Log of change in household assets | −0.00537 | −0.00172 | 0.0166 | |
(0.110) | (0.109) | (0.113) | ||
Financial literacy | 0.260 | 0.297 | 0.300 | |
(0.212) | (0.210) | (0.213) | ||
Change in health status | −0.0257 | 0.00397 | ||
(0.0730) | (0.0760) | |||
Change in future anxiety | 0.182 *** | 0.101 | ||
(0.0683) | (0.0709) | |||
Change in financial satisfaction | −0.000188 | 0.00254 | ||
(0.0731) | (0.0737) | |||
Change in depression | 0.232 *** | |||
(0.0745) | ||||
Change in the myopic view | 0.0580 | |||
(0.0615) | ||||
Constant | −2.197 *** | −2.139 *** | −2.165 *** | −2.136 *** |
(0.730) | (0.738) | (0.738) | (0.758) | |
Observations | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 | 3755 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 9.176 | 11.33 | 17.86 | 35.72 |
p-value | 0.240 | 0.416 | 0.213 | 0.003 |
Variables | Dependent Variable: Became Lonely | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Females | |||||||
Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | Age < 36 | Age 36–50 | Age 51–65 | Age > 65 | |
Age | 0.203 *** | −0.0228 | 0.0301 | 0.0251 | −0.0521 | −0.0289 | 0.0678 * | 0.203 *** |
(0.0477) | (0.0274) | (0.0282) | (0.0746) | (0.0527) | (0.0338) | (0.0412) | (0.0477) | |
Recently divorced | 2.506 *** | |||||||
(0.793) | ||||||||
Children | −0.229 | 0.269 | 0.247 | 0.0138 | 0.506 | 0.199 | 0.230 | −0.229 |
(0.582) | (0.246) | (0.258) | (0.463) | (0.380) | (0.285) | (0.402) | (0.582) | |
Became alone | 1.036 | 1.874 ** | 0.803 | |||||
(0.893) | (0.771) | (1.676) | ||||||
Living in rural | 0.624 | −0.267 | 0.219 | −0.0696 | 0.621 | −0.279 | −0.392 | 0.624 |
(0.448) | (0.241) | (0.238) | (0.409) | (0.438) | (0.297) | (0.360) | (0.448) | |
Education | −0.126 | −0.00235 | −0.0676 | 0.00694 | −0.0901 | 0.113 | −0.180 * | −0.126 |
(0.129) | (0.0490) | (0.0545) | (0.105) | (0.122) | (0.0778) | (0.0964) | (0.129) | |
Left employment | 0.799 | −1.196 | −0.990 | −0.561 | 1.258** | −0.131 | 0.799 | |
(1.270) | (1.055) | (0.967) | (0.699) | (0.591) | (0.927) | (1.270) | ||
Log of change in household income | −0.260 | −0.0401 | 0.00453 | −0.871 | 0.352 | −0.260 | 0.0434 | −0.260 |
(0.630) | (0.284) | (0.396) | (0.571) | (0.433) | (0.324) | (0.329) | (0.630) | |
Log of change in household assets | 0.231 | −0.0843 | −0.0948 | 0.00777 | −0.198 | 0.278 | 0.0724 | 0.231 |
(0.301) | (0.215) | (0.212) | (0.225) | (0.319) | (0.219) | (0.433) | (0.301) | |
Financial literacy | −0.0807 | 0.0737 | 0.256 | 1.441* | 0.256 | −0.619 | 0.739 | −0.0807 |
(0.509) | (0.373) | (0.408) | (0.810) | (0.675) | (0.433) | (0.488) | (0.509) | |
Change in health status | −0.139 | −0.211 ** | 0.0142 | −0.0300 | 0.105 | −0.295 ** | −0.0157 | −0.139 |
(0.149) | (0.104) | (0.124) | (0.109) | (0.151) | (0.121) | (0.147) | (0.149) | |
Change in future anxiety | 0.0479 | 0.163 | −0.0149 | −0.00511 | −0.0741 | 0.00846 | 0.205 | 0.0479 |
(0.263) | (0.125) | (0.140) | (0.210) | (0.166) | (0.139) | (0.173) | (0.263) | |
Change in financial satisfaction | 0.215 | −0.109 | −0.0325 | 0.176 | −0.268 * | −0.147 | 0.285 | 0.215 |
(0.158) | (0.143) | (0.149) | (0.189) | (0.151) | (0.160) | (0.221) | (0.158) | |
Change in depression | 0.158 | 0.111 | 0.321 *** | 0.464 *** | 0.404 *** | 0.104 | 0.122 | 0.158 |
(0.214) | (0.0959) | (0.117) | (0.161) | (0.152) | (0.136) | (0.153) | (0.214) | |
Change in the myopic view | 0.100 | 0.108 | −0.0531 | −0.123 | −0.0428 | 0.0791 | 0.107 | 0.100 |
(0.177) | (0.122) | (0.116) | (0.206) | (0.134) | (0.124) | (0.147) | (0.177) | |
Constant | −6.796 *** | −1.238 | −3.599 ** | −5.032 | 0.260 | −2.218 | −3.378 | −6.796 *** |
(2.102) | (1.516) | (1.729) | (7.009) | (2.308) | (1.945) | (2.763) | (2.102) | |
Observations | 222 | 784 | 952 | 522 | 355 | 477 | 290 | 222 |
Log likelihood | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Chi2 statistics | 39.82 | 17.36 | 27.84 | 22.08 | 28.19 | 19.34 | 16.23 | 39.82 |
p-value | 0.000 | 0.183 | 0.015 | 0.054 | 0.013 | 0.152 | 0.237 | 0.000 |
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Khan, M.S.R.; Yuktadatta, P.; Kadoya, Y. Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106242
Khan MSR, Yuktadatta P, Kadoya Y. Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(10):6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106242
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhan, Mostafa Saidur Rahim, Pattaphol Yuktadatta, and Yoshihiko Kadoya. 2022. "Who Became Lonely during the COVID-19 Pandemic? An Investigation of the Socioeconomic Aspects of Loneliness in Japan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 10: 6242. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106242