Role of Alexithymia in Predicting Internet Novel Addiction through Boredom Proneness
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20)
2.3. Undergraduates’ Internet Novel Addiction Questionnaire
2.4. Boredom Proneness Scale for College Students (BPS)
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Common Method Bias Test
3.2. Sex Differences in Alexithymia, Boredom Proneness, and Internet Novel Addiction
3.3. Correlations between Alexithymia, Boredom Proneness, and Internet Novel Addiction
3.4. Mediating Role of Boredom Proneness
4. Discussion
4.1. Sex Differences in Alexithymia, Boredom Proneness, and Internet Novel Addiction
4.2. Correlations between Alexithymia, Boredom Proneness, and Internet Novel Addiction
4.3. Mediating Role of Boredom Proneness between Alexithymia and Internet Novel Addiction
4.4. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- China Internet Network Information Center. The 49th Statistical Report on China’s Internet Development. Available online: http://www.cnnic.cn/hlwfzyj/hlwxzbg/hlwtjbg/202202/P020220407403488048001.pdf (accessed on 25 February 2022). (In Chinese).
- Zhang, X.; Dongfang, W.; Zhao, Y. A review of research on Internet novel addiction. J. Shangqiu Voc. Technol. Colg. 2012, 11, 28–29. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, D.J.; Zhou, Z.K.; Lei, Y.J.; Niu, Q.F.; Zhu, X.W.; Xie, X.C. The Relationship between Neuroticism and Internet Fiction Addiction of College Students: The Mediating Effects of Narrative Transportation and Flow Experience. Psychol. Sci. 2017, 40, 1154–1160. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Taylor, G.J. Recent developments in alexithymia theory and research. Can. J. Psychiatry 2000, 45, 134–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osimo, S.A.; Aiello, M.; Gentili, C.; Ionta, S.; Cecchetto, C. The Influence of Personality, Resilience, and Alexithymia on Mental Health during COVID-19 Pandemic. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 630751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tang, W.J.; Hu, T.; Yang, L.; Xu, J.P. The role of alexithymia in the mental health problems of home-quarantined university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2020, 165, 110131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, G.J.; Bagby, R.M. New Trends in Alexithymia Research. Psychother. Psychosom. 2004, 73, 68–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Gucht, V.; Heiser, W. Alexithymia and somatisation. J. Psychosom. Res. 2003, 54, 425–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Estévez, A.; Jauregui, P.; Macía, L.; López-González, H. Gambling and Attachment: The Mediating Role of Alexithymia in Adolescents and Young Adults. J. Gambl. Stud. 2021, 37, 497–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, X.Q.; Hao, C.R. The Relationship Between Parental Attachment and Mobile Phone Dependence Among Chinese Rural Adolescents: The Role of Alexithymia and Mindfulness. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gündoğmuş, İ.; Aydın, M.S.; Algül, A. The Relationship of Smartphone Addiction and Alexithymia. Psychiatry Investig. 2021, 18, 841–849. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiao, W.; Zhou, H.; Li, X.; Lin, X. Why are Individuals with Alexithymia Symptoms More Likely to Have Mobile Phone Addiction? The Multiple Mediating Roles of Social Interaction Anxiousness and Boredom Proneness. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2021, 14, 1631–1641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lv, J.; Ren, H.; Qin, Z.; Hu, Y.; Cao, R.; Liang, L.; Li, C.; Meng, C.; Guo, X.; Fei, J.; et al. Alexithymia and Mobile Phone Addiction among College Students with and without Siblings: A Moderated Mediation of Depression and Gender. Int. J. Ment. Health Ad. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hao, Z.; Jin, L.; Li, Y.; Akram, H.R.; Saeed, M.F.; Ma, J.; Ma, H.; Huang, J. Alexithymia and mobile phone addiction in Chinese undergraduate students: The roles of mobile phone use patterns. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2019, 97, 51–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mei, S.; Xu, G.; Gao, T.; Ren, H.; Li, J. The relationship between college students’ alexithymia and mobile phone addiction: Testing mediation and moderation effects. BMC. Psychiatry 2018, 18, 329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Foran, H.M.; O’Leary, K.D. The Role of Relationships in Understanding the Alexithymia–Depression Link. Eur. J. Pers. 2013, 27, 470–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lyvers, M.; Salviani, A.; Costan, S.; Thorberg, F.A. Alexithymia, narcissism and social anxiety in relation to social media and internet addiction symptoms. Int. J. Psychol. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohebi, M.; Asadzade, H.; Farrokhi, N. Modeling the structural relationships of internet addiction based on executive functions and problems interpersonal: The mediating role of Alexithymia. Shenakht J. Psychol. Psychiatry 2020, 7, 150–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Luo, H.; Zhao, Y.; Hong, J.; Wang, H.; Zhang, X.; Tan, S. Effect of Alexithymia on Internet Addiction Among College Students: The Mediating Role of Metacognition Beliefs. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 788458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cui, G.; Yao, M.; Zhang, X. The Dampening Effects of Perceived Teacher Enthusiasm on Class-Related Boredom: The Mediating Role of Perceived Autonomy Support and Task Value. Front. Psychol. 2017, 8, 400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Swinkels, A.; Giuliano, T.A. The measurement and conceptualization of mood awareness: Monitoring and labeling one’s mood states. Pers. Soc. Psychol. B 1995, 9, 934–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huang, S.H.; Li, D.L.; Zhang, W.; Li, D.P.; Zhong, H.R.; Huang, C.K. The Development of Boredom Proneness Questionnaire for College Students. Psychol. Dev. Educ. 2010, 26, 308–314. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Crockett, A.C.; Myhre, S.K.; Rokke, P.D. Boredom proneness and emotion regulation predict emotional eating. J. Health Psychol. 2015, 20, 670–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van Tilburg, W.A.P.; Igou, E.R.; Maher, P.J.; Moynihan, A.B.; Martin, D.G. Bored like Hell: Religiosity reduces boredom and tempers the quest for meaning. Emotion 2019, 19, 255–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dahlen, E.R.; Martin, R.C.; Ragan, K.; Kuhlman, M.M. Boredom proneness in anger and aggression: Effects of impulsiveness and sensation seeking. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2004, 37, 1615–1627. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mercer-Lynn, K.B.; Flora, D.B.; Fahlman, S.A.; Eastwood, J.D. The Measurement of Boredom. Assessment 2013, 20, 585–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biolcati, R.; Mancini, G.; Trombini, E. Proneness to Boredom and Risk Behaviors During Adolescents’ Free Time. Psychol. Rep. 2018, 121, 303–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, C.M.; Neighbors, C.; Woods, B.A. Marijuana motives: Young adults’ reasons for using marijuana. Addict. Behav. 2007, 32, 1384–1394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dahlen, E.R.; Martin, R.C.; Ragan, K.; Kuhlman, M.M. Driving anger, sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness in the prediction of unsafe driving. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2005, 37, 341–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blaszczynski, A.; McConaghy, N.; Frankova, A. Boredom Proneness in pathological gambling. Psychol. Rep. 1990, 5, 35–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mercer, K.B.; Eastwood, J.D. Is boredom associated with problem gambling behaviour? It depends on what you mean by ‘boredom’. Int. Gambl. Stud. 2010, 10, 91–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gana, K.; Trouillet, R.; Martin, B.; Toffart, L. The Relationship Between Boredom Proneness and Solitary Sexual Behaviors in Adults. Soc. Behav. Pers. 2001, 29, 385–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elpidorou, A. The good of boredom. Philos. Psychol. 2018, 31, 323–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eastwood, J.D.; Cavaliere, C.; Fahlman, S.A.; Eastwood, A.E. A desire for desires: Boredom and its relation to alexithymia. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2007, 42, 1035–1045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eastwood, J.D.; Frischen, A.; Fenske, M.J.; Smilek, D. The Unengaged Mind: Defining Boredom in Terms of Attention. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2012, 7, 482–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chou, W.; Chang, Y.; Yen, C. Boredom proneness and its correlation with Internet addiction and Internet activities in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Kaohsiung J. Med. Sci. 2018, 34, 467–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, W. Exploring the Relationship Among Free-Time Management, Leisure Boredom, and Internet Addiction in Undergraduates in Taiwan. Psychol. Rep. 2019, 122, 1651–1665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Z.; Mai, Y.; Yang, M.; Zhang, M.Z. Package ‘WebPower’. Available online: http://mirror.nju.edu.cn/CRAN/web/packages/WebPower/WebPower.pdf (accessed on 20 March 2022).
- Yuan, Y.G.; Shen, X.H.; Zhang, X.R.; Wu, A.Q.; Sun, H.C. Reliability and validity of the Toronto Affective Disorder Scale (TAS-20). Sichuan Ment. Health 2003, 1, 25–27. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Song, Y.J.; Guo, S.; Shang, Q.L.; Kong, Q.N. Questionnaire development for college students on online novel addiction. Chin. J. Health Psychol. 2013, 21, 195–197. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Podsakoff, P.M.; MacKenzie, S.B.; Podsakoff, N.P. Sources of Method Bias in Social Science Research and Recommendations on How to Control It. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2012, 63, 539–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hayes, A.F. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, 2nd ed.; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Cluskey, M.; Grobe, D. College Weight Gain and Behavior Transitions: Male and Female Differences. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2009, 109, 325–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Odacı, H.; Kalkan, M. Problematic Internet use, loneliness and dating anxiety among young adult university students. Comput. Educ. 2010, 55, 1091–1097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Xu, T.; Jing, J.; Chan, R.C. Alexithymia and emotional regulation: A cluster analytical approach. BMC Psychiatry 2011, 11, 33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Elkholy, H.; Elhabiby, M.; Ibrahim, I. Rates of Alexithymia and Its Association with Smartphone Addiction Among a Sample of University Students in Egypt. Front. Psychiatry 2020, 11, 304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Baysan-Arslan, S.; Cebeci, S.; Kaya, M.; Canbal, M. Relationship between internet addiction and alexithymia among university students. Clin. Investig. Med. 2016, 39, S111–S115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Isacescu, J.; Danckert, J. Exploring the relationship between boredom proneness and self-control in traumatic brain injury (TBI). Exp. Brain Res. 2018, 236, 2493–2505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vodanovich, S.J.; Wallace, J.C.; Kass, S.J. A Confirmatory Approach to the Factor Structure of the Boredom Proneness Scale: Evidence for a Two-Factor Short Form. J. Pers. Assess. 2005, 85, 295–303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wegner, L.; Flisher, A.J. Leisure boredom and adolescent risk behaviour: A systematic literature review. J. Child Adolesc. Ment. Health 2009, 21, 1–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, L.; Niu, Z.; Griffiths, M.D.; Wang, W.; Chang, C.; Mei, S. A network perspective on the relationship between gaming disorder, depression, alexithymia, boredom, and loneliness among a sample of Chinese university students. Technol. Soc. 2021, 67, 101740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craparo, G.; Gagliano, O.; Costanzo, G.; Valentina, L.L.R.; Gori, A.; Mendolicchio, L. Boredom, alexithymia, and desire thinking in eating disorders: A cross-sectional study. Mediterr. J. Clin. Psychol. 2020, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vodanovich, S.J.; Kass, S.J. A Factor Analytic Study of the Boredom Proneness Scale. J. Pers. Assess. 1990, 55, 115–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harris, M.B. Correlates and Characteristics of Boredom Proneness and Boredom. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 30, 576–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunter, A.; Eastwood, J.D. Does state boredom cause failures of attention? Examining the relations between trait boredom, state boredom, and sustained attention. Exp. Brain Res. 2018, 236, 2483–2492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brand, M.; Young, K.S.; Laier, C.; Wölfling, K.; Potenza, M.N. Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2016, 71, 252–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zhang, Y.; Li, S.; Yu, G. The longitudinal relationship between boredom proneness and mobile phone addiction: Evidence from a cross-lagged model. Curr. Psychol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.; Yang, H.; Montag, C.; Elhai, J.D. Boredom proneness and rumination mediate relationships between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity. Curr. Psychol. 2020. [CrossRef]
- Mercer-Lynn, K.B.; Bar, R.J.; Eastwood, J.D. Causes of boredom: The person, the situation, or both? Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2014, 56, 122–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; Yang, X.; Zhang, X. Relationships among boredom proneness, sensation seeking and smartphone addiction among Chinese college students: Mediating roles of pastime, flow experience and self-regulation. Technol. Soc. 2020, 62, 101319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wangh, M. Boredom in Psychoanalytic Perspective. Soc. Res. 1975, 42, 538–550. [Google Scholar]
- Kafetsios, K.; Hess, U. Seeing mixed emotions: Alexithymia, emotion perception bias, and quality in dyadic interactions. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 2019, 137, 80–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lin, C.; Yu, S. Adolescent Internet usage in Taiwan: Exploring gender differences. Adolescence 2008, 43, 317. [Google Scholar]
- Li, X.; Feng, X.; Xiao, W.; Zhou, H. Loneliness and Mobile Phone Addiction Among Chinese College Students: The Mediating Roles of Boredom Proneness and Self-Control. Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag. 2021, 14, 687–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Male | Female | t | |
---|---|---|---|
N = 169 | N = 175 | ||
Age [M ± SD] | 20.64 ± 1.38 | 20.84 ± 1.31 | −1.38 |
Difficulty identifying feelings [M ± SD] | 18.48 ± 5.49 | 18.47 ± 5.32 | 0.04 |
Difficulty describing feelings [M ± SD] | 14.11 ± 3.00 | 13.81 ± 3.04 | 0.94 |
Externally oriented thinking [M ± SD] | 23.27 ± 2.97 | 23.25 ± 2.93 | 0.07 |
Total score for alexithymia [M ± SD] | 55.86 ± 8.03 | 55.51 ± 8.88 | 0.38 |
Internal stimulation [M ± SD] | 35.86 ± 9.16 | 35.57 ± 8.72 | 0.30 |
External stimulation [M ± SD] | 74.74 ± 22.03 | 74.13 ± 22.23 | 0.26 |
Total score for boredom proneness [M ± SD] | 110.60 ± 17.57 | 109.70 ± 18.90 | 0.65 |
Health & Learning [M ± SD] | 17.88 ± 5.12 | 16.47 ± 5.04 | 2.58 ** |
Interpersonal relationship [M ± SD] | 12.12 ± 3.59 | 11.09 ± 3.53 | 2.68 ** |
Tolerance [M ± SD] | 18.47 ± 5.28 | 18.77 ± 5.38 | −0.53 |
Time management [M ± SD] | 12.01 ± 3.56 | 10.30 ± 3.29 | 4.63 *** |
Withdrawal reaction [M ± SD] | 8.95 ± 2.72 | 8.44 ± 2.83 | 1.71 |
Total score for internet novel addiction [M ± SD] | 69.43 ± 18.30 | 65.07 ± 16.82 | 2.30 * |
Variables | M ± SD | 1 | 2 | 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. Alexithymia | 55.69 ± 8.46 | 1 | ||
2. Boredom proneness | 110.14 ± 18.24 | 0.63 *** | 1 | |
3. Internet novel addiction | 67.22 ± 17.67 | 0.61 *** | 0.53 *** | 1 |
p | Effect | LLCI | ULCI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mediating effect of boredom proneness | <0.001 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.48 |
Direct effect of alexithymia on internet novel addiction | <0.001 | 0.46 | 0.73 | 1.17 |
Total effect | <0.001 | 0.61 | 1.09 | 1.44 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Liu, Y.; Chen, L.; Wang, Z.; Guo, G.; Zhang, M.; Chen, S. Role of Alexithymia in Predicting Internet Novel Addiction through Boredom Proneness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 8708. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148708
Liu Y, Chen L, Wang Z, Guo G, Zhang M, Chen S. Role of Alexithymia in Predicting Internet Novel Addiction through Boredom Proneness. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(14):8708. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148708
Chicago/Turabian StyleLiu, Yuying, Lei Chen, Zhiyan Wang, Ge Guo, Mingming Zhang, and Shunsen Chen. 2022. "Role of Alexithymia in Predicting Internet Novel Addiction through Boredom Proneness" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 14: 8708. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148708