The Fatigue-Related Symptoms Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2: A Preliminary Comparative Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.1.1. Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2
2.1.2. Non-Fatigue Controls
2.1.3. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
2.2. Procedures
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Anxiety
2.3.2. Depression
2.3.3. Positive and Negative Affect
2.3.4. Self-Esteem
2.3.5. Stress
2.3.6. Cognitive Failures
2.3.7. Fatigue Related Symptoms
2.3.8. Individual Symptoms
2.3.9. Quality of Sleep
2.4. Analysis
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Group Characteristics
3.1.1. Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2 (PAC-19)
3.1.2. Non-Fatigue Controls
3.1.3. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)
3.2. Comparisons between Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2 (PAC-19) and Controls
3.2.1. Sleep Quality
3.2.2. Fatigue and Related Symptoms
3.3. Comparisons between Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2 (PAC-19) and CFS
3.3.1. Sleep Quality
3.3.2. Fatigue Related Symptoms
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Conclusions
4.3. Future Research
4.4. Recommendations
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Carfi, A.; Bernabel, R.; Landi, F. Persistent symptoms in patients after acute COVID-19. JAMA 2020, 324, 603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Royal Society. Long COVID: What Is it, and what Is Needed? NIHR. Living with COVID-19. 2020. Available online: https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/set-c/set-c-longcovid.pdf (accessed on 27 July 2022).
- Thomas, M. Tired All the Time: Persistent Fatigue and Healthcare; Palgrave MacMillan: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, A.P.; Brockman, P.; Flynn, R.; Maben, A.; Thomas, M. Investigation of the effects of coffee on alertness and performance during the day and night. Neuropsychobiology 1993, 27, 217–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.; Thomas, M.; Kent, J.; Nicholson, K. Effects of the common cold on mood and performance. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998, 23, 733–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.P.; Thomas, M.; Brockman, P.; Kent, J.; Nicholson, K. Effect of influenza B virus infection on human performance. Br. Med. J. 1993, 306, 760–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.P.; Thomas, M.; Whitney, H. After effects of the common cold on mood and performance. Ergonomics 2000, 43, 1342–1349. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, A.P. Chronic fatigue syndrome and performance. In Handbook of Human Performance, Health and Performance; Smith, A.P., Jones, D.M., Eds.; Academic Press: London, UK, 1992; Volume 2, pp. 261–278. [Google Scholar]
- Hall, S.R.; Smith, A.P. Behavioural effects of infectious mononucleosis. Neuropsychobiology 1996, 33, 202–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomas, M. Exploring the Beliefs and Underlying Functional Deficits Associated with CFS and the Identification of Predictors of Recovery and Successful illness Management. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wales, Wales, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, A.; Thomas, M.; Sadlier, M. Multi-convergent therapy: A possible intervention to aid return to work. Occup. Health Work 2009, 6, 30–32. [Google Scholar]
- Smith, A.P. Post-viral Fatigue: Implications for Long COVID. Asian J. Res. Infect. Dis. 2021, 6, 17–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, M.; Smith, A. An investigation into the cognitive deficits associated with chronic fatigue syndrome. Open Neurol. J. 2009, 2, 78–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomas, M.; Christopher, G. Fatigue in Developmental Coordination Disorder: An exploration of the risk factors among adults. Fatigue: Biomed. Behav. Health 2018, 6, 41–51. [Google Scholar]
- EuroQol Group. EuroQol—A new facility for the measurement of health-related quality of life. Health Policy 1990, 16, 199–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spielberger, C.; Gorsuch, R.; Lushene, R.E. STAI Manual for the Stait-Trait Anxiety Inventory; Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA, USA, 1971. [Google Scholar]
- Radloff, L.S. The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl. Psychol. Meas. 1977, 1, 385–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zevon, M.A.; Tellegen, A. The structure of mood change: An idiographic/nomothetic analysis. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1982, 43, 111–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleming, J.S.; Watts, W.A. The dimensionality of self esteem: Some results from a college sample. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1980, 39, 921–929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.; Kamarack, T.; Mermelstein, R. A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 1983, 24, 385–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Broadbent, D.E.; Cooper, P.F.; Fitzgerald, P.; Parkes, K.R. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 1982, 21, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ray, C.; Weir, W.R.C.; Stewart, D.; Millar, P.; Hyde, G. Ways of coping with CFS: Development of an illness management questionnaire. Soc. Sci. Med. 1993, 37, 385–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.P.; Borysiewicz, L.; Pollock, J.; Thomas, M.; Perry, K.; Llewelyn, M. Acute fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychol. Med. 1999, 29, 283–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, M.A.; Sadlier, M.J.; Smith, A.P. The effect of Multi Convergent Therapy on the psychopathology, mood and performance of chronic fatigue syndrome patients: A preliminary study. Couns. Psychother. Res. 2006, 6, 91–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, A.P.; Thomas, M. Cognitive behaviour therapy, multi-convergent therapy, and the mood and cognitive performance of chronic fatigue syndrome patients. World J. Pharm. Med. Res. 2022, 8, 58–65. [Google Scholar]
- Surawy, C.; Hackman, A.; Hawton, K.; Sharpe, M. CFS: A cognitive approach. Behav. Res. Ther. 1995, 33, 535–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
PAC-19 (n = 26) | Controls (n = 45) | CFS (n = 76) | |
---|---|---|---|
Age in years (SD) | 46 (2.69) | 34 (1.65) | 44 (1.52) |
Sex: Male:Female | 4:22 | 12:33 | 9:68 |
Marital Status %: | |||
Single | 9 | 30 | 35 |
Married/Partner | 15 | 15 | 36 |
Divorced/Separated | 2 | 0 | 6 |
Widowed | 0 | 0 | 0 |
PAC-19 | Controls | F(1, 60), p | |
---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | 46.53 (2.89) | 40.71 (1.78) | ns |
Depression | 42.47 (3.04) | 35.31 (1.87) | 4.03, 0.049 |
Positive affect Negative affect | 39.88 (3.25) 35.59 (3.01) | 32.27 (1.99) 16.22 (1.85) | 3.99, 0.050 30.05, 0.001 |
Self-Esteem | 56.00 (3.96) | 56.91 (2.44) | ns |
Perceived Stress | 27.23 (2.52) | 24.29 (1.55) | ns |
Cognitive Failures | 51.32 (3.70) | 42.38 (2.76) | ns |
Profile of Fatigue Related Symptoms: | |||
Fatigue | 57.12 (4.47) | 28.47 (2.75) | 29.83, 0.001 |
Emotional distress | 45.59 (5.56) | 37.16 (3.42) | ns |
Cognitive difficulties | 43.35 (3.80) | 24.13 (2.34) | 35.01, 0.001 |
Somatic symptoms | 46.71 (4.53) | 30.38 (2.79) | 3.99, 0.050 |
No. of individual symptoms | 9.23 (1.05) | 2.93 (0.64) | 26.21, 0.001 |
PAC-19 | CFS | F(1. 92), p | |
---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | 46.53 (2.89) | 54.74 (1.37) | 6.49, 0.013 |
Depression | 42.47 (3.04) | 48.84 (1.54) | ns |
Positive affect Negative affect | 39.88 (3.25) 35.59 (3.01) | 23.69 (1.32) 28.62 (1.44) | 3.99, 0.050 30.05, 0.001 |
Self-Esteem | 56.00 (3.96) | 45.22 (2.09) | ns |
Perceived Stress | 27.23 (2.52) | 32.47 (1.18) | ns |
Cognitive Failures | 51.32 (3.70) | 59.74 (2.04) | 4.34, 0.040 |
Profile of Fatigue Related Symptoms: | |||
Fatigue | 57.12 (4.47) | 69.82 (1.81) | 8.86, 0.004 |
Emotional distress | 45.59 (5.56) | 57.69 (2.84) | ns |
Cognitive difficulties | 43.35 (3.80) | 51.32 (1.90) | ns |
Somatic symptoms | 46.71 (4.53) | 64.17 (2.47) | 9.05, 0.003 |
No. of individual symptoms | 9.23 (1.05) | 16.69 (0.65) | 23.69, 0.001 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Thomas, M. The Fatigue-Related Symptoms Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2: A Preliminary Comparative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11662. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811662
Thomas M. The Fatigue-Related Symptoms Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2: A Preliminary Comparative Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(18):11662. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811662
Chicago/Turabian StyleThomas, Marie. 2022. "The Fatigue-Related Symptoms Post-Acute SARS-CoV-2: A Preliminary Comparative Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 18: 11662. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811662