Trends in Precarious Employment in Sweden 1992–2017: A Social Determinant of Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Data Source
2.3. Variables
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Methods
3. Results
3.1. Participants
3.2. Descriptive Data
3.3. Main Results
4. Discussion
4.1. Key Results
4.2. Limitations
4.3. Interpretation
4.4. Health Implications of the Results
4.5. Generalizability
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Theme | Categories | Score |
---|---|---|
Contractual relationship insecurity | Directly employed by the employer | 0 |
Employed by a temp agency ° | −1 | |
Contractual Temporariness | Having the same employer for 3 years | 0 |
Having the same employer for <3 years | −2 | |
Number of employers during the year | 1–2 employers | 0 |
≥3 employers | −1 | |
≥3 employers in ≥3 sectors | −2 | |
Income in relation to the median salaried income in total working population | >200% | 2 |
120–200% | 1 | |
80–120% | 0 | |
60–80% | −1 | |
<60% | −2 | |
Probability of unionization coverage * | >90% | 0 |
70–90% | −1 | |
<70% | −2 |
N | 1992 | 1997 | 2002 | 2007 | 2012 | 2017 | 1992–2017 Relative Change | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | |
2,021,427 | 1,816,626 | 1,928,138 | 1,681,421 | 2,006,694 | 1,734,541 | 2,055,351 | 1,771,523 | 2,126,215 | 1,883,549 | 2,232,546 | 1,965,354 | 12% | 8% | |
Mean age (sd) | 33.6 (15.2) | 33.5 (15.2) | 34.9 (14.3) | 35.5 (13.9) | 35.9 (14.4) | 36.4 (14.1) | 35.8 (14.8) | 36.3 (14.4) | 35.5 (15.3) | 36.2 (14.8) | 35.5 (15.1) | 36.3 (14.7) | ||
Region of birth | ||||||||||||||
Africa | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 1 | 0.7 | 1.4 | 1.1 | 2.3 | 1.8 | 475.0 | 800.0 |
Asia | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.9 | 1.5 | 3 | 2.7 | 4.1 | 3.7 | 5.7 | 5.2 | 8.1 | 7.3 | 440.0 | 563.6 |
Europe and Oceania | 2.9 | 2.7 | 3.2 | 2.9 | 3.9 | 3.9 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 131.0 | 148.1 |
North America | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 150.0 | 100.0 |
South America | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 0.9 | 1 | 80.0 | 100.0 |
Sweden and Nordics | 94.5 | 95.3 | 93.7 | 94.6 | 91.4 | 92 | 89.1 | 89.9 | 86.1 | 86.9 | 81.4 | 82.8 | −13.9 | −13.1 |
Employers size | ||||||||||||||
1 | 46.6 | 65.8 | 50.6 | 66.5 | 47.5 | 62.5 | 47.2 | 56.7 | 50.4 | 59.3 | 48.4 | 56.7 | 3.9 | −13.8 |
2–9 | 18.6 | 31 | 25.1 | 36.1 | 23.6 | 34.3 | 26.3 | 33.8 | 26.5 | 34.8 | 25.9 | 33.2 | 39.2 | 7.1 |
10–49 | 8.2 | 13.9 | 11.4 | 17.3 | 10.8 | 16 | 8.9 | 15.4 | 9.2 | 15.8 | 9.7 | 14.6 | 18.3 | 5.0 |
50–249 | 4.6 | 9.3 | 6.3 | 11.6 | 6.6 | 11.5 | 5.5 | 9.9 | 5.5 | 10.1 | 6.9 | 11 | 50.0 | 18.3 |
250– | 5.9 | 7.4 | 5.7 | 6.5 | 5.8 | 6.9 | 4.3 | 5.2 | 5 | 5.9 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 13.6 | −9.5 |
Sector | ||||||||||||||
Private | 79.2 | 51.1 | 75 | 43.8 | 77.8 | 47 | 79.8 | 48.4 | 80.7 | 51.3 | 80.2 | 51.1 | 1.3 | 0.0 |
Public | 20.8 | 48.9 | 25 | 56.2 | 22.2 | 53 | 20.2 | 51.6 | 19.3 | 48.7 | 19.8 | 48.9 | −4.8 | 0.0 |
Educational level | ||||||||||||||
Primary | 28 | 22.5 | 23.4 | 17.9 | 19.1 | 13.6 | 15.8 | 10.2 | 13.2 | 8.2 | 11.8 | 7.2 | −57.9 | −68.0 |
Secondary | 49.1 | 51.4 | 50.9 | 51.2 | 52.5 | 51.1 | 52.7 | 48.9 | 52.7 | 46.5 | 51.9 | 43.2 | 5.7 | −16.0 |
Post-secondary | 22.9 | 26.1 | 25.7 | 30.9 | 28.5 | 35.3 | 31.5 | 40.9 | 34 | 45.4 | 36.4 | 49.6 | 59.0 | 90.0 |
1992 | 1997 | 2002 | 2007 | 2012 | 2017 | 1992–2017 Relative Change | 1997–2017 Relative Change | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | |
Total | 8.7 | 10.7 | 10.2 | 11.1 | 9.9 | 11 | 11.8 | 12.2 | 13.3 | 13.7 | 13.9 | 13.7 | 59.8 | 28.0 | 36.3 | 23.4 |
Age | ||||||||||||||||
≤24 | 28.6 | 28.6 | 39.2 | 43.2 | 38.3 | 45.7 | 41.7 | 51.9 | 44.6 | 54.9 | 44.5 | 51.3 | 55.6 | 79.4 | 13.5 | 18.8 |
25–34 | 9.2 | 12.3 | 11.2 | 14.3 | 11.4 | 14.1 | 15.4 | 16.8 | 17.1 | 18.4 | 18 | 18.9 | 95.7 | 53.7 | 60.7 | 32.2 |
35–44 | 5.9 | 8.2 | 7.4 | 8.6 | 7 | 8.6 | 7.8 | 8.6 | 8.4 | 9.3 | 10 | 10 | 69.5 | 22.0 | 35.1 | 16.3 |
45–54 | 4.3 | 5.8 | 5.2 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 5.2 | 6.3 | 5.6 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 7.1 | 6.9 | 65.1 | 19.0 | 36.5 | 35.3 |
≥55 | 4 | 6.3 | 4 | 4.6 | 4.6 | 4.7 | 4.9 | 4.3 | 5.6 | 4.9 | 6.3 | 5.3 | 57.5 | −15.9 | 57.5 | 15.2 |
Region of birth | ||||||||||||||||
Africa | 28.6 | 28.5 | 31.5 | 34.1 | 27.8 | 28.8 | 33.4 | 26.4 | 34.5 | 30.1 | 35.6 | 32.6 | 24.5 | 14.4 | 13.0 | −4.4 |
Asia | 30.2 | 28.9 | 36.2 | 33 | 32.7 | 29.8 | 37.3 | 28.9 | 35.4 | 29.3 | 35.6 | 27.8 | 17.9 | −3.8 | −1.7 | −15.8 |
Europe and Oceania | 14.2 | 15.7 | 21.1 | 22 | 17.1 | 19.6 | 20.9 | 20.2 | 20.9 | 21.2 | 19.7 | 20.7 | 38.7 | 31.8 | −6.6 | −5.9 |
North America | 22.8 | 26.3 | 26.2 | 27 | 22.9 | 25 | 22.9 | 22.8 | 23.1 | 24.5 | 22.4 | 22.9 | −1.8 | −12.9 | −14.5 | −15.2 |
South America | 21.2 | 22.3 | 25.8 | 26 | 23.6 | 23.4 | 24.9 | 23 | 23.9 | 21.9 | 20.9 | 19.9 | −1.4 | −10.8 | −19.0 | −23.5 |
Sweden and Nordics | 8.1 | 10.2 | 9.1 | 10.2 | 8.6 | 9.8 | 9.8 | 10.9 | 10.8 | 11.9 | 10.5 | 11.2 | 29.6 | 9.8 | 15.4 | 9.8 |
Employer Size | ||||||||||||||||
1 | 46.6 | 65.8 | 50.6 | 66.5 | 47.5 | 62.5 | 47.2 | 56.7 | 50.4 | 59.3 | 48.4 | 56.7 | 3.9 | −13.8 | −4.3 | −14.7 |
2–9 | 18.6 | 31 | 25.1 | 36.1 | 23.6 | 34.3 | 26.3 | 33.8 | 26.5 | 34.8 | 25.9 | 33.2 | 39.2 | 7.1 | 3.2 | −8.0 |
10–49 | 8.2 | 13.9 | 11.4 | 17.3 | 10.8 | 16 | 8.9 | 15.4 | 9.2 | 15.8 | 9.7 | 14.6 | 18.3 | 5.0 | −14.9 | −15.6 |
50–249 | 4.6 | 9.3 | 6.3 | 11.6 | 6.6 | 11.5 | 5.5 | 9.9 | 5.5 | 10.1 | 6.9 | 11 | 50.0 | 18.3 | 9.5 | −5.2 |
≥250 | 5.9 | 7.4 | 5.7 | 6.5 | 5.8 | 6.9 | 4.3 | 5.2 | 5 | 5.9 | 6.7 | 6.7 | 13.6 | −9.5 | 17.5 | 3.1 |
Sector | ||||||||||||||||
Private | 8.7 | 15.4 | 11.4 | 18.3 | 10.8 | 16.9 | 9.9 | 15.6 | 10.3 | 15.9 | 11.2 | 15.8 | 28.7 | 2.6 | −1.8 | −13.7 |
Public | 9.3 | 8.2 | 7 | 6.1 | 7 | 6.2 | 4.1 | 4.1 | 5.2 | 4.7 | 6.8 | 5.3 | −26.9 | −35.4 | −2.9 | −13.1 |
Educational level | ||||||||||||||||
Primary | 9.2 | 14.1 | 10.9 | 14.4 | 13.1 | 17.2 | 17.2 | 20.7 | 20.2 | 25 | 25 | 29.9 | 171.7 | 112.1 | 129.4 | 107.6 |
Secondary | 9.5 | 11.5 | 11.7 | 12.5 | 10.6 | 12.2 | 12.2 | 14 | 13.6 | 16.1 | 13.5 | 15.9 | 42.1 | 38.3 | 15.4 | 27.2 |
Post-secondary | 5 | 5.3 | 5.9 | 6.5 | 5.9 | 6.5 | 7.5 | 7.6 | 8.3 | 8.2 | 8.9 | 8.1 | 78.0 | 52.8 | 50.8 | 24.6 |
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Bodin, T.; Matilla-Santander, N.; Selander, J.; Gustavsson, P.; Hemmingsson, T.; Johansson, G.; Jonsson, J.; Kjellberg, K.; Kreshpaj, B.; Orellana, C.; et al. Trends in Precarious Employment in Sweden 1992–2017: A Social Determinant of Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912797
Bodin T, Matilla-Santander N, Selander J, Gustavsson P, Hemmingsson T, Johansson G, Jonsson J, Kjellberg K, Kreshpaj B, Orellana C, et al. Trends in Precarious Employment in Sweden 1992–2017: A Social Determinant of Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912797
Chicago/Turabian StyleBodin, Theo, Nuria Matilla-Santander, Jenny Selander, Per Gustavsson, Tomas Hemmingsson, Gun Johansson, Johanna Jonsson, Katarina Kjellberg, Bertina Kreshpaj, Cecilia Orellana, and et al. 2022. "Trends in Precarious Employment in Sweden 1992–2017: A Social Determinant of Health" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12797. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912797