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Case Report

Well-Being amongst College Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a Developing Country

by
Lina Martinez
1,*,
Lina Sofia Valenzuela
2 and
Victoria Eugenia Soto
3
1
Business School, Universidad Icesi & POLIS, Cali 760031, Colombia
2
Entrepreneurship Development Center, CDEE, Universidad Icesi, Cali 760031, Colombia
3
PROESA, Universidad Icesi, Cali 760031, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(24), 16745; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416745
Submission received: 2 November 2022 / Revised: 23 November 2022 / Accepted: 1 December 2022 / Published: 13 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Well-Being and Health in Education: Challenges, Chances, and Change)

Abstract

:
College students face unique challenges that the consequences of COVID-19 might aggravate. To explore the pandemic’s consequences on college students’ well-being, we conducted an online survey with 634 students from a private university in Cali, Colombia. The study sought to assess students’ well-being due to COVID-19, and to explore the mediating effects of optimism, gratitude, and emotional closeness on college students’ well-being. Results showed that COVID-19 affected students’ mental health and well-being. Being optimistic and grateful mediated with life satisfaction and happiness. Optimism, emotional closeness, and gratitude also mediated the negative effect of fear of infection and the pandemic’s impact on students’ academic performance. The results of this analysis will promote discussion of the implementation of coping strategies to help students thrive, promote resilience, and contribute to students’ well-being and better mental health.

1. Introduction

The restrictions associated with the containment of COVID-19 are, without a doubt, the “largest physiological experiment even conducted” [1]. With over two million deaths worldwide and more than 100 million confirmed cases [2] the pandemic, the measures taken to control the spread of the virus, and the global economic consequences, are imposing a heavy toll on our mental health. This crisis and the pervasiveness of feelings such as fear and uncertainty have affected the entire global population to a viable extent.
Quarantine, the most used measure to contain the pandemic contagious rate, has a negative psychological effect: producing stress, confusion, and anger. It also adds stressors, such as fear, frustration, boredom, and financial concerns [3]. For some population groups, such as children and young adults, the pandemic may have more severe consequences on mental health, even more significant than the consequences on their physical health [2].
College students face unique challenges that negatively affect their mental health. Before COVID-19 unfolded, there were reports of the prevalence of poor mental health worldwide amongst this population. The rates of anxiety and depression are steadily increasing. Information from the US indicates a spike of 63% of young adults (18 years and over) reporting symptoms associated with significant depression between 2005 and 2017, mainly affecting girls [4]. Worldwide, one in five college students experiences one or more diagnoses of mental disorders [5].
College students can be subject to stressful situations. The pressures of establishing a career path, academic demands, the transition from adolescence to adulthood, peer pressures, and many other factors affect their general well-being and mental health [6]. Before the pandemic, there was a significant number of reports showing that the increase in stress, depression, and reduction in the overall well-being amongst college students was prevalent, and was the subject of different interventions from the public health system and colleges initiatives [7,8,9]. The current pandemic represents an additional challenge for this population. Changes in the routine, the reduction of personal interactions with classmates and friends, and the interruption of academic and professional trajectories negatively impact their well-being [5]. Moreover, college students around the world have presented increased stress and anxiety levels [10,11,12,13], and this may be exacerbated in the long run by uncertainties and the increase in information flow [14].
Most of the literature regarding subjective well-being amongst college students comes from developed countries [15] and explores two broad themes: on the one hand, there is a bulk of research explaining and quantifying the prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression, and worry; on the other hand, studies focused on life satisfaction, and overall well-being encompass the study of mediators that increase life satisfaction. The studies focusing on the prevalence of negative emotions show the substantial prevalence of stress, anxiety, depression, and worry amongst college students [6,7,8,9]. Generally speaking, the literature shows that young people (12 to 25 years) present a higher prevalence of negative emotions that are detrimental to overall well-being [16,17,18,19]. The group of studies focusing on life satisfaction explores positive psychological characteristics of students’ well-being. Amongst these studies, positive attributes, such as self-esteem, social support, gratitude, and optimism, amongst other copying strategies, are studied as mediators. Overall, these analyses show that positive psychological characteristics are strongly associated with students’ life satisfaction [20,21,22,23].
This analysis falls into the literature that explores well-being, its mediators, and coping mechanisms. The literature shows that coping strategies (response to a threat or emotion that exceeds the person’s resources [24], such as a positive outlook during stressful situations (optimism), being grateful, and having close relationships, can be pivotal to overcoming adverse circumstances.

1.1. Optimism

Optimism is defined as an attitude associated with expectations of the future, which individuals regard as positive to his/her advantage [25]. Optimism is fundamental in times of uncertainty because optimistic people tend to cope better with difficult situations [26]. Dispositional optimism helps people to cope with stress because optimistic people manage, in a better way, stressful and challenging events, accepting them instead of trying to wish them away [27]. Optimistic people also try to actively resolve problems compared to pessimists that tend to avoid coping strategies [28,29,30,31]. Among college students, optimistic individuals are more committed to social, academic, and personal activities, and positive psychological functioning [32]. Optimism can help college students to adjust in a better way during stressful situations [33], reduces feelings of loneliness [32], and is a predictor of life satisfaction and positive emotions [34]. It has also been found that students with higher levels of optimism have higher retention rates and higher grade point averages because they have higher levels of motivation and are better at adjusting and adapting to stressful situations [27,35]. Optimism contributes to subjective well-being, and college students with high optimism tend to experience positive emotions and higher life satisfaction [36,37]. Optimism also proved to be pivotal during the lockdown for college students. Evidence from Spain shows that optimism moderated educational achievement and improved grades during the pandemic for the population analyzed [38].

1.2. Gratitude

Most authors define gratitude as a state where grateful individuals have a high level of appreciation for life and a subjective feeling of thankfulness [36,37]. Gratitude is also defined as a trait that can vary among individuals [22,39]. Wood [40] suggested that gratitude should be conceptualized as a life orientation, where grateful people appreciate the world’s positive things. Gratitude is an emotion that is felt towards another person or thing, and it is a disposition to express and feel the emotion of thankfulness across situations [36]. Gratitude brings positive emotional states [41], is related to prosocial behavior [42], satisfaction and acceptance of difficult circumstances [43], happiness [44], and long-term subjective well-being [39,40]. In college students, being grateful contributes to their happiness [45], improves retention and academic performance [46], and promotes social support [47]. In the context of the pandemic, the evidence available shows that gratitude lessened mental health difficulties and promoted resilience [48], and that interventions fostering gratitude were effective in improving the mental health of college students during the crisis [49].

1.3. Emotional Closeness—Relationships

The presence and quality of supportive relationships are necessary for every aspect of the life of any individual. It is crucial to build relationships with people who can offer advice, help, or assistance during different life cycle episodes [50]. Supportive relationships facilitate coping [24], moderate the stress–depression relationship [51], and predicts a reduction in loneliness [52]. Relations with family, friends, and romantic partners are related to subjective well-being [53]. Among college students, those who spent time with family and friends have higher perceived happiness levels [54]. Social support and social connections help students adjust better to college [55] also relate to positively perceived happiness and well-being [56,57]. Emotional closeness and social connectedness were pivotal for wellbeing during the pandemic, providing a strong sense of being in control and improving emotional well-being [58]. In the higher education context, strategies aimed at grouping students showed that group support provided opportunities for improving academic achievement and outlets for emotional support [59].
This study aimed to contribute to the bulk of the literature focusing on students’ well-being and life satisfaction by analyzing the mediating effect of optimism, gratitude, and emotional closeness, on well-being during the pandemic caused by COVID-19. Additionally, this study contributes to the literature by providing evidence from a developed country (Colombia), where information about college students’ well-being and the pandemic are scarce. This analysis is composed of six sections, including this introduction. Section 2 discusses the analytical framework and research questions that guide our analysis. In the Section 3, we present the dataset’s details to answer the research questions and the methods. The Section 4 presents the results and ends with the discussion and conclusions of this research.

2. Analytical Framework and Hypothesis

Our analytical framework assumes that COVID-19 represents a stressful event for college students, which reduces their overall well-being (life satisfaction) and increases the prevalence of emotions such as worry and depression. However, coping strategies such as a positive attitude, being grateful, and having close relationships with peers and family can mediate college students’ negative emotional states during the current crisis. Figure 1 presents the analytical framework guiding this study.

Research Questions and Aims

Coping strategies such as practicing gratitude, staying close to loved ones and being optimistic exert protective effects against worry and depression. The literature’s significant bulk shows a positive correlation between those coping approaches and better mental health [60]. This research aimed to evaluate college students’ coping strategies to assess how those strategies help them cope during confinement.
This analysis has two purposes: first, to assess students’ well-being and mental health during COVID- 19; second, to explore the mediating effects of optimism, gratitude, and supportive relationships on college students’ well-being and mental health. Three hypotheses guided our analysis:
Hypothesis 1 (H1): 
Some of the negative consequences of COVID-19 on students’ psychological well-being will be attenuated for grateful students insofar as grateful students cope better with the aftermath of COVID-19.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): 
Some of the negative consequences of COVID-19 on students’ psychological well-being will be attenuated for optimistic students because optimistic students tend to have a positive outlook towards difficult circumstances.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): 
Some of the negative consequences of COVID-19 on students’ psychological well-being will be attenuated by closer relationships with parents and friends, since students who have at their disposal supportive relationships are better at coping with stress and difficulties.
To answer these questions, we conducted an online survey in April 2020, after one month of quarantine in Colombia. The respondents were 634 students from a private university in Cali, Colombia. The study asked students about their general well-being and the prevalence of feelings of worry and depression. The survey also inquired about students’ attitudes toward optimism and gratefulness.

3. Data and Methods

This analysis was derived from an online survey conducted between mid-April and early May of 2020, one month after the quarantine unfolded in Colombia. The survey was uploaded into “Typeform,” a web server for online polling and surveys. For distributing the survey, researchers used a convenience sampling strategy and disseminated the online survey through four channels: (i) the university’s social networks; (ii) emails sent from professors to their students; (iii) distribution lists; and (iv) students’ associations. Survey participation was voluntary, and before starting the survey, the researchers provided a complete description of the research aims and data use, students participating consented to use the aggregated data for academic purposes. The survey was anonymous, and no personal information was collected to ensure complete anonymity. A total of 19% of students participating in the study were 16 or 17 years old (minors under Colombian legislation) at the moment of the survey. However, given the anonymous nature of the survey and their consent, we included their responses in the analysis. In total, 634 students between 16 and 24 completed the survey, 10% of the university’s total undergrad population, making a satisfactory rate compared to the median web survey participation [61]. At the survey time, students had online synchronous classes, most living at their parent’s homes. Their classes had the same content as face-to-face classes. One significant change was that the final evaluation was qualitative: ‘approve or not approved’ instead of numeric. The survey competition took about ten minutes, and before the final questionnaire was released, the survey was piloted with 20 students. The ethics committee of Universidad Icesi approved the study (code # 278). Figure 2 presents the study design.
After survey competition, students downloaded a gratitude journal and a stress management diary designed for this study at the end of the survey as a reward for participation. We included the gratitude journal as a reward for participation due to the evidence indicating that writing about gratitude has a positive effect on immediate thoughts of participants [62].
The survey inquired about subjective well-being, mental health, and concerns about the consequences of COVID-19, optimism, gratitude, and emotional closeness with parents and friends. In total, the survey had 17 questions. Appendix A presents the questionnaire, and data is available with complete description of the metrics used at Mendely data repository [63].

3.1. Study Variables

3.1.1. Well-Being and Mental Health

In this study, we adhered to the World Health Organization’s overall concept of mental health. This idea refers to mental health as a state of well-being in which individuals can cope with the stress of life and is not restricted to the diagnosis of a mental disorder [2]. To measure well-being and the prevalence of the most common negative emotions affecting mental health (worry and depression), we used the standardized and validated scale of core well-being measures [64].
Well-being is measured using subjective and experienced well-being variables. Measures of subjective well-being come from self-reported life satisfaction. We asked students, “how satisfied are you with all aspects of your life? Answers ranged from 0 to 10, with 0 referring to completely dissatisfied and a 10 to completely satisfied.
The estimation of experienced well-being comes from using one positive emotional state: happiness and two negative states: worried and depression that students experienced the day before of the survey. The following questions were asked: Overall, how happy did you feel yesterday? How worried did you feel yesterday? And how depressed did you feel yesterday? Students’ answers were also reported on a scale from 0 to 10, with 0 the lowest and ten the highest [64].

3.1.2. Concerns and Feelings about COVID-19 Consequences

The study inquired about the economic, health, and academic consequences of the coronavirus and the government’s perception of social distancing measures. We used three questions in which students were asked about how much they agreed or disagreed, measured on a 0–10 scale:
  • I am concerned about the financial consequences of the coronavirus;
  • The probability of that a family member or I, acquire the virus is high;
  • I am concerned that my academic performance will be affected by the coronavirus.

3.1.3. Optimism

The survey included a short version of the originally ten item-long Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R). Students were asked: (i) In uncertain times, I usually expect the best; (ii) I am always optimistic about my future; and (iii) Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad. The score was on a scale from 0 (completely disagree) to 10 (completely agree). The Cronbach reliability for the scale was 0.82 (Table 1), similar to the Cronbach alpha of the original inventory 0.82 [28]. The mean of the score of these three items was the measure of students’ optimism.

3.1.4. Gratitude

Measures for gratitude come from a short version of a gratitude self-reported questionnaire, validated to Spanish [65]. The questions assessed individual differences in experiencing gratitude in daily life. Two items (3 and 5) in this scale had reversed scores. This measure included the following items:
  • I have so much in life to be thankful;
  • If I had to list everything that I felt grateful for, it would be a very long list;
  • When I look at the world, I don’t see much to be grateful;
  • I am grateful to a wide variety of people;
  • Large amounts of time can go by before I feel grateful for something or someone.
Students’ responses ranged from 0 to 10. The reliability of gratitude items was 0.90, showing good internal consistency for the instrument (Table 1).

3.1.5. Emotional Closeness—Relationships

The survey asked students to score from 0 to 10 “how emotionally close do you feel towards (1) your parent(s)/legal guardian(s) and (2) your friends; your significant other, and your college classmates. For this analysis, we defined two dichotomic variables: emotional closeness to parents; and emotional closes to friends.

3.2. Mediation Analysis

For analysis, we used a modifying Baron and Kenny’s [66] approach to establish the mediation of each coping strategy on students’ wellbeing. Following Mehmetoglu [67], the mediation effect was estimated following these steps. First, we fit a structural equation model (SEM) of coping strategy on students’ wellbeing by controlling for pandemic consequence to estimate simultaneously direct (c) and indirect paths (a alpha, b beta) (Figure 3). If either one path was not significant (or both were not significant) there was no mediation. Evidence of mediation was provided when both Pandemic Consequences → Coping Strategy and Coping Strategy → Wellbeing outcome coefficients were statistically significant. After that, Sobel’s z test was calculated to estimate the relative sizes of the indirect (mediated) vs. direct paths. The results of no, partial or complete mediation were determined as follows: (i) if the Sobel’s z test was significant and the direct path of Pandemic consequence → Wellbeing outcome was not, the mediation was full or complete; (ii) If both the z and the direct path of Pandemic consequence → Wellbeing outcome were significant, the mediation was partial; (iii) If the z was not significant but the direct path of Pandemic consequence → Wellbeing outcome was, the mediation was partial in the presence of a direct effect, (iv) If neither the z nor the direct path of Pandemic Consequence → Wellbeing outcome were significant, the mediation was partial in the absence of a direct effect. We also tested the coping strategy mediation hypothesis by using 634 Monte Carlo replications. Additional explanations of the testing mediation hypothesis can be found in Mehmetoglu [67].
For modeling, we used a medsem package in Stata 15 [67], which employs structural equation modeling to estimate the statistically significance of each path, controlling for age and gender. Coefficients were standardized. The effect of size of indirect effect of each coping strategy was estimated by the ratio of the indirect effect to the total effect ( R I T = a b a b + c ) and the ratio of the indirect effect to the direct effect ( R I D = a b c ).

4. Results

Students who participated in the study were, on average, 19.4 years old (std = 2.0), and 56% of the responders were female. To the question about how satisfied you with all aspects of your life are, students reported on average 6.8 (std = 1.8). Although it is not strictly comparable, yearly life satisfaction measures in Cali report constant life satisfaction scores of 8.5, almost two units above students’ life satisfaction scores during the quarantine. This score of 8.5 has not changed, importantly, between 2014 and 2019 and is the same as national statistics [68].
Students reported being happy the day before on 5.9 (std = 2.3). This number contrasted with being worried, which scored high among students, 6.4 (std = 2.6) on average. Being depressed scored 4.5 (std = 2.9). As expected, correlations between life satisfaction and happiness were positive, and negative with feelings of worry and depression (Figure 4).
Taken all together, students were highly optimistic and grateful. Gratitude was the coping strategy with the highest score (7.8, std = 2.6). These strategies were correlated among them, suggesting that these measures were related to similar feelings that enable people to overcome unpleasant situations. In contrast, optimism and gratitude correlated positively with well-being variables. Table 2 presents the correlation scores for the variables of this study.

The Mediating Effect of the Coping Strategies

Thes mediation effect of coping strategies was mainly observed for the relationship between the financial concerns raised by COVID-19 and students’ life satisfaction (Table 3). Table 4 present the results of mediation analysis of coping strategies on positive and negative students´ subjective well-being outcomes. About 197% (RIT) of this relationship was mediated by optimism, 368% by gratitude, 213% by emotional closeness to parents and 230% by emotional closeness to friends. The ratio of the indirect effect of the coping strategy on the effect of financial consequences of COVID-19 (RID) was higher than 100%.
Regarding the mediating effect (Table 4) of the coping strategies in the relationship of life satisfaction and the fear of being infected by coronavirus, optimism and emotional closeness to friends turned out to be statistically significant. Gratitude played a partial mediating effect in this relationship, and emotional closeness to parents does not have a mediating effect at all. Concerning the mediating role of coping strategies in the relationship of the stress affecting student academic performance and life satisfaction, none of the coping strategies played a role in this relationship.
Turning to the relationship of financial pandemic consequences and happiness, optimism, and emotional closeness to parents and friends played a mediating role in this relationship. For the fear of being infected by the coronavirus and the stress affecting students’ academic performance, none of the strategies showed a complete mediating contribution to the relationship. Similar results were obtained for the mediating effect of the coping strategies for being worried, except for the role of optimism on the pandemic’s financial consequences relationship. In contrast, all coping strategies showed a mediating effect on the relationship between students’ financial concerns and depression. For the fear of being infected by the coronavirus, and the stress affecting student academic performance, none of the coping strategies played a complete mediating effect.
These results may suggest that optimism, emotional closeness, and gratitude allow young people to include in their cognitive bandwidth the new reality imposed by the pandemic, in particular, for the financial concerns related to the pandemic. Nevertheless, the mediating role of the coping strategies on the fear of being infected by coronavirus, and the stress affecting student academic performance, was partial or non-existent.

5. Discussion

In line with the available evidence regarding the consequences of the pandemic on students’ well-being and mental health [5,10,11,12,13], we found that the pandemic had negative consequences on student life, associated with their subjective well-being. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 affected students by reducing their life satisfaction and feelings of happiness, and by increasing depression and worry [69,70,71,72]. However, correlations between well-being variables were positive and positively correlated to gratitude, emotional closeness, and optimism. Similar to other studies conducted during the pandemic [48,49,59], we found that being optimistic and grateful helped students reduce the negative effect of fear of infection and the pandemic’s impact on students’ academic performance, after adjusting for age and gender. Results showed that students who are more optimistic, closer to their parents and friends, and grateful can cope better with a crisis. Likewise, these positive attitudes and emotions increased well-being and reduced the prevalence of depression and worry.
This study faces several limitations. An important one is the lack of measures of well-being and mental health before the quarantine unfolded, limiting the possibility of better capturing the effects attributed to the pandemic or other factors. Another limitation is the study’s cross-sectional nature, which only captured measures at one point during the pandemic. Likewise, this study does not represent the college population in the context studied. Lastly, the original survey did not include variables to control students’ socioeconomic conditions, which are pivotal in this crisis. Despite its limitations, this study aims to promoted a broader discussion of students’ well-being.
Results suggest that coping strategies are a pivotal component for overcoming difficult circumstances. In the case of optimism and gratitude, there is significant evidence showing their positive correlation with good mental health and well-being [30]. Students who practice gratitude have better results in achieving their goals, report less physical complaints, and are more optimistic [44]. Optimistic students have a higher probability of ending their studies than dropping out because they tend to adapt, expect better results, and confront problems better than pessimistic students [35]. There is also evidence that implementing gratitude-enhancing techniques in college can reduce dropout rates; one of the major concerns of this pandemic. Graduating from college gives students more opportunities in the long run, particularly in a middle-income country like Colombia. A spike in dropout rates not only harms students’ futures but also the accumulation of human capital in society. There is a need to foster gratitude interventions at the college level particularly, given the mounting evidence of its effectiveness for helping students coping with difiicult situations [49,58,73,74].
Gratitude, optimism, and happiness levels among college students positively influence their academic performance, college adaptation, and retention. The challenge is to implement interventions effectively. College programs can significantly contribute to issues such as students’ adaptation and the promotion of students’ activities to enhance their roles beyond academic responsibilities. Online interventions have been an option for college students who do not seek formal help [75,76,77]. Moreover, fostering interventions to promote gratitude, optimism or emotional closeness can reduce the financial concerns raised by the pandemic and allow students to manage their emotions and their expectations for the future.

6. Conclusions

This paper explored the mediating effects of optimism, emotional closeness, and gratitude on well-being during the pandemic caused by COVID-19. This analysis used information from an online survey collected in Cali, Colombia, among college students after one month of quarantine. Similar to other studies conducted with the same population, we found a negative impact of the pandemic on students’ well-being. Our results also showed that coping strategies such as optimism, gratitude, and emotional closeness reduced the negative consequences of a crisis. An important contribution of our study is contributing to the ongoing discussion of college students’ well-being by providing evidence from a context with little available data.
This study also provides arguments for the call to universities and the educational system to foster positive interventions, such as optimism and gratitude, by offering and promoting programs within the academic curricula. A substantial body of research from positive psychology shows that attitudes such as those studied in this analysis can have positive returns. Aspects of how to implement those strategies or transmit them to the student population are beyond the scope of this analysis. Along with the benefits of the programs, it is important to promote social connectedness in students. These activities promote optimism and gratitude at the individual level and should also provide an opportunity for students to improve their social relationships with other students.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M., L.S.V. and V.E.S.; methodology, V.E.S.; data curation, L.M.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M., L.S.V. and V.E.S.; writing—review and editing, L.M., L.S.V. and V.E.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Surveys ws approved by Universidad Icesi ethics committee (code # 278).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Available data for this study can be accessed at Martínez, L., Valencia, I., & Trofimoff, V. (2020). Subjective wellbeing and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: Data from three population groups in Colombia. Data in brief, 32, 106287.

Conflicts of Interest

No potential conflict of interest is reported by the author(s).

Appendix A

STUDENT WELL-BEING DURING THE PANDEMIC
Date:Month Day Year
1. During the process of collecting, typing and manipulating the data
provided by you. These data will be used only for academic purposes and will be presented in an aggregated way. Given the above, are you willing to participate in this survey?
3. How old are you?
1Yes 0 No 4. What is your academic program?
 
5. What semester are you in?
6. Gender
1Male 2 Female
SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING
The next question is about how satisfied you are, on a scale of 0 to 10. Zero means that you are not at all satisfied and 10 means that you are
completely satisfied.
7. In general, how satisfied are you with all aspects of your life?
Not at all satisfied012345678910Completely satisfied
The next questions are about how you felt yesterday on a scale of 0 to 10. Zero means that you did not experience these feelings “at any time”
while 10 means that you experienced these feelings “all the time.” Now I am going to read you a list of scenarios that you could experience
At any time012345678910All the time
8. How happy? 012345678910
9. How worried? 012345678910
10. How depressed? 012345678910
CORONAVIRUS AND WELL-BEING
In the next questions, be as honest as possible and try not to let your answer to the first statement of each question influence the answers to the other statements.
11. Please answer how strongly you agree or disagree with the following statements regarding Coronavirus.
Completely disagree012345678910Completely agree
11.1I am concerned about my health. 012345678910
11.2I am concerned about the health of my loved ones. 012345678910
11.3I am taking all the protective measures recommended by
the media and the government.
012345678910
11.4With government measures, I feel isolated. 012345678910
11.5I consider that the quarantine is an individual 012345678910
responsibility and not of the government.
11.6I enjoy having time to spend with my family 012345678910
11.7I enjoy being able to disconnect from my daily activities012345678910
11.8I feel more productive working at home or 012345678910
independently.
11.9I keep informed and read the news about 012345678910
the Coronavirus.
11.10I am concerned about the financial consequences 012345678910
of the Coronavirus.
11.11The probability that my loved ones or I getting infected is
high.
012345678910
11.12I feel that in last days my anxiety and stress levels 012345678910
have increased.
11.13I consider that the government is taking all the necessary
measures to overcome the crisis.
012345678910
11.14I consider that the government provides sufficient
information in these cases.
012345678910
11.15I’m amused by memes and jokes about the Coronavirus.012345678910
11.16I feel that with the help of technology I am ready to
continue my activities from home.
012345678910
11.17I always check the sources of information to be reliable,
before commenting or sharing the news.
012345678910
11.18I am concerned that my academic performance will be
affected by the Coronavirus.
012345678910
11.19I am comfortable with the online classes. 012345678910
1
STUDENT WELL-BEING DURING THE PANDEMIC
MANAGING EMOTIONS
12. Please answer the following questions:
Completely disagree012345678910Completely agree
12.1 In difficult times I usually hope for the best012345678910
12.2 I getting relax easily012345678910
12.3 I am always optimistic about the future012345678910
12.4 I really enjoy hangout with my friends012345678910
12.5 It is important to me always be busy012345678910
12.6 I don’t get upset easily012345678910
12.7 Overall, I hope more good things than bad
things happen to me
012345678910
13. How happy are you with:
Unhappy012345678910Happy
13.1Your life overall 012345678910
13.2At this moment in your life 012345678910
13.3Yourself 012345678910
13.4Your physical appearance 012345678910
13.5Your ability to communicate with others 012345678910
13.6Your health overall 012345678910
13.7What you have achieved in your life so far 012345678910
13.8The college 012345678910
13.9Your college classmates 012345678910
14. How stressed are you with:
Not stressed at all012345678910Very stressed
14.1Your life overall 012345678910
14.2The college 012345678910
14.3Your home 012345678910
14.4The financial situation of your home 012345678910
14.5The lack of time 012345678910
14.6Your future 012345678910
15. How often do you use stress management techniques:
At any time012345678910All the time
15.1Breathe deeply 012345678910
15.2Count to ten 012345678910
15.3Praying 012345678910
15.4Meditating 012345678910
15.5Listen to music 012345678910
15.6Doing exercise 012345678910
15.7Stretching exercises 012345678910
15.8Talking or calling someone 012345678910
15.9Imagine something pleasant 012345678910
15.10Look at the big picture of the problem 012345678910
15.11Writing down the factors that stress me 012345678910
15.12Thank everyday 012345678910
16. How emotionally close do you feel to your loved ones:
Not close at all012345678910Completely close
16.1 Parents012345678910
16.2 Friends012345678910
16.3 Couple012345678910
16.4 College classmates012345678910
TWith the following question, we want to know how much you usually thank and appreciate certain everyday situations or your life.
17. How much do you agree with?
Completely disagree012345678910Completely agree
17.1I have a lot to thank life 012345678910
17.2If I had to make a gratitude list, it would be very long 012345678910
17.3When I look at the world I have a lot to thank 012345678910
17.4I am grateful with a lot of people 012345678910
17.5As time goes by, I appreciate more the people, events and
situations that are part of my life.
012345678910
2

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Figure 1. Analytical framework.
Figure 1. Analytical framework.
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Figure 2. Study design.
Figure 2. Study design.
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Figure 3. Mediation analysis of coping strategy on students’ wellbeing.
Figure 3. Mediation analysis of coping strategy on students’ wellbeing.
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Figure 4. Well-being scales, COVID-19 pandemic’s concerns and coping strategies.
Figure 4. Well-being scales, COVID-19 pandemic’s concerns and coping strategies.
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Table 1. Cronbach’s Alpha correlation for gratitude and optimism.
Table 1. Cronbach’s Alpha correlation for gratitude and optimism.
Optimism
ItemObsalpha
In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.6340.74
I’m always optimistic about my future.6340.72
Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.6340.78
Test scale 0.82
Gratitute
ItemObsalpha
I have so much in life to be thankful for.6340.87
If I had to list everything that I felt grateful for, it would be a very long list6340.87
When I look at the world, I see much to be grateful for.6340.87
I am grateful to a wide variety of people.6340.89
Long amounts of time can go by before I feel grateful to something or someone6340.89
Test scale 0.90
Table 2. Variables correlations.
Table 2. Variables correlations.
Variables Life SatisfactionHappinessWorriedDepressionOptimismEmotional Closeness with Parents Emotional Closeness with FriendsGratitudeFinancial ConsequencesFear of Being Infected Academic Stress
Life satisfaction1
Happiness0.621.00
Worried−0.22−0.341.00
Depression−0.45−0.590.441.00
Optimism0.480.40−0.11−0.321.00
Emotional closeness with parents 0.380.32−0.07−0.230.331.00
Emotional closeness with friends0.380.280.02−0.170.260.291.00
Gratitude0.410.330.02−0.200.430.430.331.00
Financial consequences−0.03−0.090.140.110.030.090.080.161.00
Fear of being infected −0.11−0.160.160.15−0.08−0.02−0.10−0.050.171.00
Academic stress−0.15−0.170.290.25−0.13−0.06−0.03−0.020.160.051
Table 3. Mediate effect of coping strategic on life satisfaction and happiness.
Table 3. Mediate effect of coping strategic on life satisfaction and happiness.
Mediate EffectIndependent VariableFinancial ConsequencesHealth ConsequencesAcademic Consequences
Outcome: Life Satisfaction
Mediate variableEstimatesIndirect effectCIIndirect effectCIIndirect effectCI
Optimism Delta 0.038[0.001, 0.074]−0.040[−0.076, −0.004]-0.065[−0.102, −0.028]
Sobel0.038[0.001, 0.074]−0.040[−0.076, −0.004]−0.065[−0.102, −0.028]
Monte Carlo 0.037[0.003, 0.074]−0.041[−0.077, −0.006]−0.066[−0.103, −0.031]
RIT 1.970Full mediation0.394Full mediation0.426Partial mediation
RID 2.0310.6510.743
GratitudeDelta0.07[0.036, 0.105]−0.033[−0.065, 0.000]−0.02[−0.052, 0.013]
Sobel0.07[0.036, 0.105]−0.033[−0.065, 0.000]−0.02[−0.052, 0.013]
Monte Carlo 0.07[0.038, 0.106]−0.033[−0.066, −0.001]−0.02[−0.053, 0.012]
RIT 3.684Full mediation0.320Partial mediation0.128No mediation
RID 1.3730.4710.147
Emotional closeness to parentsDelta0.041[0.010, 0.071]−0.012[−0.041, 0.017]−0.031[−0.061, −0.002]
Sobel0.041[0.010, 0.071]−0.012[−0.041, 0.017]−0.031[−0.061, −0.002]
Monte Carlo 0.04[0.012, 0.071]−0.013[−0.041, 0.017]−0.032[−0.062, −0.004]
RIT 2.132Full mediation0.116No mediation0.206Partial mediation
RID 1.8840.1320.259
Emotional closeness to friendsDelta0.044[0.013, 0.074] −0.043[−0.073, −0.013]−0.017[−0.047, 0.012]
Sobel0.044[0.013, 0.074]−0.043[−0.073, −0.013]−0.017[−0.047, 0.012]
Monte Carlo 0.043[0.015, 0.075]−0.044[−0.075, −0.016]−0.018[−0.047, 0.011]
RIT 2.297Full mediation0.423Full mediation0.114No mediation
RID 1.7710.7320.129
Outcome: Happiness
Mediate variableEstimatesIndirect effect CI Indirect effect CI Indirect effect CI
Optimism Delta 0.030[0.000, 0.060]−0.032[−0.062, −0.003]−0.053[−0.083, −0.022]
Sobel0.030[0.000, 0.060]−0.032[−0.062, −0.003]−0.053[−0.083, −0.022]
Monte Carlo 0.030[0.002, 0.060]−0.033[−0.063, −0.005]−0.053[−0.084, −0.025]
RIT 1.126Full mediation0.239Partial mediation0.316Partial mediation
RID 0.530.3140.462
GratitudeDelta0.058[0.029, 0.088]−0.027[−0.055, 0.000]−0.016[−0.044, 0.011]
Sobel0.058[0.029, 0.088]−0.027[−0.055, 0.000]−0.016[−0.044, 0.011]
Monte Carlo 0.058[0.031, 0.090]−0.028[−0.056, −0.001]−0.017[−0.044, 0.010]
RIT 2.169Partial mediation0.200Partial mediation0.098No mediation
RID 0.6840.250.109
Emotional closeness to parentsDelta0.035[0.008, 0.061]−0.010[−0.035, 0.015]−0.027[−0.052, −0.001]
Sobel0.035[0.008, 0.061]−0.010[−0.035, 0.015]−0.027[−0.052, −0.001]
Monte Carlo 0.034[0.010, 0.062]−0.011[−0.036, 0.014]−0.027[−0.054, −0.003]
RIT 1.288Full mediation0.075No mediation0.161Partial mediation
RID 0.5630.0810.192
Emotional closeness to friendsDelta0.031[0.008, 0.054]−0.030[−0.052, −0.008]−0.012[−0.033, 0.009]
Sobel0.031[0.009, 0.053]−0.030[−0.052, −0.008]−0.012[−0.033, 0.009]
Monte Carlo 0.031[0.010, 0.055]−0.031[−0.055, −0.011]−0.013[−0.035, 0.008]
RIT 1.149Full mediation0.224Partial mediation0.074No mediation
RID 0.5350.2890.080
Note: RIT = (Indirect effect/Total effect), RID = (Indirect effect/Direct effect), Delta = (a × b).
Table 4. Mediate effect of coping strategic on worry and depression.
Table 4. Mediate effect of coping strategic on worry and depression.
Mediate EffectIndependent VariableFinancial ConsequencesHealth ConsequencesAcademic Consequences
Outcome: Worry
Mediate variableEstimatesIndirect effect CI Indirect effect CI Indirect effect CI
Optimism Delta 0.031[0.008, 0.054]−0.030[−0.052, −0.008]−0.012[−0.033, 0.009]
Sobel0.031[0.009, 0.053]−0.030[−0.052, −0.008]−0.012[−0.033, 0.009]
Monte Carlo 0.031[0.010, 0.055]−0.031[−0.055, −0.011]−0.013[−0.035, 0.008]
RIT 1.149Full mediation0.224Partial mediation0.074No mediation
RID 0.5350.2890.080
GratitudeDelta0.004[−0.008, 0.017]−0.002[−0.008, 0.004]−0.001[−0.005, 0.003]
Sobel0.004[−0.008, 0.017]−0.002[−0.008, 0.004]−0.001[−0.005, 0.003]
Monte Carlo 0.005[−0.008, 0.019]−0.002[−0.011, 0.004]−0.001[−0.008, 0.003]
RIT 0.067No mediation0.015No mediation0.004No mediation
RID 0.0720.0150.004
Emotional closeness to parentsDelta−0.006[−0.015, 0.003]0.002[0.003, 0.007]0.005[−0.003, 0.012]
Sobel−0.006[−0.015, 0.003]0.002[0.003, 0.007]0.005[−0.003, 0.012]
Monte Carlo −0.006[−0.016, 0.002]0.002[0.003, 0.009]0.005[−0.002, 0.015]
RIT 0.094No mediation0.013No mediation0.017No mediation
RID 0.0860.0130.018
Emotional closeness to friendsDelta0.004[−0.005, 0.013]−0.004[−0.013, 0.005]−0.002[−0.006, 0.003]
Sobel0.004[−0.005, 0.013]−0.004[−0.013, 0.005]−0.002[−0.006, 0.003]
Monte Carlo 0.004[−0.005, 0.015]−0.004[−0.016, 0.005]−0.002[−0.009, 0.003]
RIT 0.061No mediation0.029No mediation0.006No mediation
RID 0.0650.0280.006
Outcome: Depression
Mediate variableEstimatesIndirect effect CI Indirect effect CI Indirect effect CI
Optimism Delta −0.022[−0.044, 0.000]0.024[0.002, 0.045]0.038[0.015, 0.061]
Sobel−0.022[−0.044, 0.000]0.024[0.002, 0.045]0.038[0.015, 0.061]
Monte Carlo −0.021[−0.043, −0.002]0.024[0.003, 0.046]0.038[0.017, 0.063]
RIT 0.746Partial mediation0.192Partial mediation0.155Partial mediation
RID 0.4270.2370.184
GratitudeSobel−0.036[−0.007, 0.027]0.017[−0.001, 0.034]0.010[−0.056, −0.015]
Monte Carlo −0.035[−0.006, 0.028]0.017[0.001, 0.036]0.010[−0.056, −0.017]
RIT 1.203Full mediation0.134Partial mediation0.04No mediation
RID 0.5460.1550.042
Emotional closeness to parentsDelta−0.024[−0.044, −0.005]0.007[−0.010, 0.025]0.019[0.000, 0.037]
Sobel−0.024[−0.044, −0.005]0.007[−0.010, 0.025]0.019[0.000, 0.037]
Monte Carlo −0.024[−0.043, −0.007]0.007[−0.010, 0.025]0.019[0.002, 0.039]
RIT 0.827Full mediation0.058No mediation0.077Partial mediation
RID 0.4530.0620.083
Emotional closeness to friendsDelta−0.017[−0.031, −0.003]0.017[0.003, 0.031]0.007[−0.005, 0.018]
Sobel−0.017[−0.031, −0.003]0.017[0.003, 0.031]0.007[−0.005, 0.018]
Monte Carlo −0.016[−0.032, −0.004]0.017[0.004, 0.033]0.007[−0.004, 0.020]
RIT 0.571Full mediation0.135Partial mediation0.027No mediation
RID 0.3640.1560.028
Note: RIT = (Indirect effect/Total effect), RID = (Indirect effect/Direct effect), Delta = (Beta × Alpha).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Martinez, L.; Valenzuela, L.S.; Soto, V.E. Well-Being amongst College Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a Developing Country. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 16745. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416745

AMA Style

Martinez L, Valenzuela LS, Soto VE. Well-Being amongst College Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a Developing Country. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(24):16745. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416745

Chicago/Turabian Style

Martinez, Lina, Lina Sofia Valenzuela, and Victoria Eugenia Soto. 2022. "Well-Being amongst College Students during COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from a Developing Country" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 24: 16745. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192416745

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