Heavy Metals in Harvested Rainwater Used for Domestic Purposes in Rural Areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a Case Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Water Sampling
2.3. Human Health Risk Assessment
- Chronic daily intakes of metals (CDIs) and,
- Health risk indexes of metals (HRIs).
2.3.1. Chronic Daily Intakes of Metals (CDIs)
2.3.2. Health Risk Indexes of Metals (HRIs)
2.4. Household Survey
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Main Characteristics and Usage of Rainwater Harvesting Cisterns in Yatta Area
3.2. Cisterns Owners’ Awareness
3.3. Heavy Metals’ Concentrations
Element | 1 Palestine | 2 Palestine | 3 Palestine | 4 Turkey | 5 Pakistan | 6 Iran | 7 WHO Limits | 8 Palestinian Limits |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cr | 4.31 | 56.1 | 0.008 | 4.40 | 3.61 | 1.74 | 50 | 50 |
Mn | 4.32 | 112.6 | 0.003 | 3.98 | 14.01 | n.a. | 500 | 100 |
Co | 0.24 | 3.16 | n.d. | n.d. | 0.52 | n.a. | 10 | n.a. |
Ni | 19.06 | 26.7 | 0.003 | 3.82 | 4.25 | 7.14 | 70 | 50 |
Cu | 8.18 | 143.6 | 0.003 | 6.01 | 65.8 | 21.4 | 2000 | 1000 |
Zn | 201.34 | 111.8 | 0.05 | 6.12 | 34.2 | 80.93 | 3000 | 5000 |
Cd | 0.10 | 1.17 | n.d. | n.a. | 0.53 | 0.67 | 3 | 3 |
Pb | 1.80 | 45.8 | n.d. | n.a. | 5.03 | 69.7 | 10 | 10 |
3.4. Factors and Activities Contribute to Harvested Rainwater Contamination with Heavy Metals
3.5. Health Risk Assessment
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questionnaire
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Element | Average (STD) (μg/L) (SD) | Samples Where Each Heavy Metal Was Detected, n (%) | Range (μg/L) | WHO Limits (μg/L) | Palestinian Limits (μg/L) | Samples Exceeding WHO Limits, n (%) | Samples Exceeding Palestinian Limits, n (%) |
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Pb | 1.80 (1.49) | 71 (96) | n.d.–24.00 | 10 | 10 | 2 (2.70) | 2 (2.70) |
Cr | 4.31 (3.69) | 74 (100) | 0.11–101.00 | 50 | 50 | 2 (2.70) | 2 (2.70) |
Mn | 4.32 (2.99) | 60 (81) | n.d.–58.00 | 500 | 100 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Co | 0.24 (0.66) | 40 (54) | n.d.–3.00 | 10 | - | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Ni | 19.06 (8.01) | 74 (100) | 0.60–518.00 | 70 | 50 | 2 (2.70) | 2 (2.70) |
Cu | 8.18 (3.99) | 74 (100) | 0.54–123.00 | 2000 | 1000 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Zn | 201.34 (21.04) | 68 (92) | n.d.–3453.00 | 3000 | 5000 | 1 (1.35) | 0 (0) |
Cd | 0.10 (0.56) | 46 (62) | n.d.–2.00 | 3 | 3 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) |
Factor | Significance p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Zn | Ni | Cr | Pb | |
Type of water collection surface | 1.000 | 0.000 | 0.996 | 0.996 |
Take actions before collecting rainwater (Cleaning the roof of the house, Getting rid of first rain water, etc.). | 0.972 | 0.925 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
For what purposes is the water in the cistern used | 0.977 | 0.996 | 0.983 | 0.983 |
When the cistern was cleaned last time? | 1.000 | 0.997 | 0.997 | 0.997 |
Walls material of cistern | 0.905 | 0.817 | 0.817 | 0.817 |
Situation of the cistern top | 0.906 | 0.867 | 0.867 | 0.867 |
Shape of the cistern | 0.424 | 0.739 | 0.255 | 0.255 |
Distance between cistern and cesspit | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Level of cesspit with respect to cistern | 0.192 | 0.230 | 0.230 | 0.230 |
When the cesspit was discharged last time | 0.999 | 0.996 | 0.996 | 0.996 |
Is there any animals or birds raised in the house | 0.443 | 0.714 | 0.714 | 0.714 |
Is there any trees close to the cistern | 0.558 | 0.404 | 0.404 | 0.404 |
Do you use the roof of the house for hanging the laundry | 0.424 | 0.255 | 0.255 | 0.255 |
Do you allow solid waste to accumulate in cistern vicinity | 0.586 | 0.438 | 0.349 | 0.349 |
Heavy Metal | Number of Sampled that Exceeded the Standard Drinking Water | CDI Value (μg/kg.day) | HRI Value | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pb | 1 | 0.668 | 0.019 | Safe |
2 | 0.382 | 0.011 | Safe | |
Cr | 3 | 2.82 | 0.188 | Safe |
4 | 1.70 | 0.113 | Safe | |
Ni | 5 | 5.97 | 0.30 | Safe |
6 | 14.39 | 0.72 | Safe | |
Zn | 7 | 95.90 | 0.32 | Safe |
Heavy Metal | Sample No. | CDI Value (μg/kg.day) | HRI Value | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pb | 1 | 0.735 | 0.020 | Safe |
2 | 0.421 | 0.012 | Safe | |
Cr | 3 | 3.10 | 0.207 | Safe |
4 | 1.87 | 0.125 | Safe | |
Ni | 5 | 6.57 | 0.33 | Safe |
6 | 15.84 | 0.79 | Safe | |
Zn | 7 | 105.60 | 0.35 | Safe |
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Anabtawi, F.; Mahmoud, N.; Al-Khatib, I.A.; Hung, Y.-T. Heavy Metals in Harvested Rainwater Used for Domestic Purposes in Rural Areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a Case Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052683
Anabtawi F, Mahmoud N, Al-Khatib IA, Hung Y-T. Heavy Metals in Harvested Rainwater Used for Domestic Purposes in Rural Areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a Case Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(5):2683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052683
Chicago/Turabian StyleAnabtawi, Fathi, Nidal Mahmoud, Issam A. Al-Khatib, and Yung-Tse Hung. 2022. "Heavy Metals in Harvested Rainwater Used for Domestic Purposes in Rural Areas: Yatta Area, Palestine as a Case Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 5: 2683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052683