Surveillance of Indoor Air Concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds in Luxembourgish Households
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
2.2. Chemical Analyses and Reagents
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.4. Risk Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Summary of Exposure Measurements
3.2. Spatial Analysis
3.3. Temporal Analysis
3.4. Risk Assessment
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Compound (μg/m3) | n | GM | GSD | Min | p10 | p25 | p50 | p75 | p90 | Max | Guidance Values * | IARC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<p50 | |||||||||||||
Other VOCs | methylisothiazolinone | 232 | 1.2 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 4.0 | 9.5 | <1.0 | – |
<p75 | |||||||||||||
Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes | formaldehyde | 345 | 11.9 | 6.1 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 8.6 | 24.9 | 40.1 | 55.5 | 368.8 | 30.0 | 1 |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | benzene | 369 | 2.7 | 2.2 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 4.0 | 8.0 | 37.0 | 3.0 | 1 |
Terpenes | limonene | 370 | 10.3 | 4.3 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 4.5 | 10.0 | 26.2 | 81.7 | 605.0 | 23.0 | 3 |
Terpenes | pinene, β- | 370 | 3.8 | 5.0 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 4.0 | 10.0 | 29.4 | 626.0 | 8.7 | – |
<p90 | |||||||||||||
Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes | acetaldehyde | 338 | 9.9 | 6.3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 4.7 | 17.7 | 32.1 | 57.1 | 342.8 | 54.0 | 2B |
Aliphatic hydrocarbons | hexane, n- | 370 | 2.5 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 5.0 | 15.9 | 941.5 | 8.0 | – |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | ethyl-benzene | 370 | 2.1 | 3.2 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 3.0 | 14.1 | 100.5 | 10.0 | 2B |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | naphthalene | 370 | 0.6 | 3.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 18.0 | 1.2 | 2B |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | xylene, m- | 370 | 3.8 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 7.0 | 33.8 | 269.0 | 29.0 | 3 |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | xylene, o- | 370 | 2.2 | 3.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 3.5 | 16.7 | 154.3 | 9.0 | 3 |
Halocarbons | dichlorobenzene, 1,4- | 370 | 0.3 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 30.0 | <1.0 | 2B |
Halocarbons | perchlorethylene | 370 | 0.2 | 3.9 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 464.5 | <1.0 | 2A |
>p90 | |||||||||||||
Aromatic hydrocarbons | styrene | 370 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 5.5 | 3872.0 | 12.0 | 2A |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | xylene, p- | 370 | 1.8 | 3.3 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 3.0 | 11.5 | 119.0 | 29.0 | 3 |
Halocarbons | trichloroethylene | 370 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 5.0 | <1.0 | 1 |
Compound (μg/m3) | RB | UBI | UBT | p Value | Pairwise | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | GM (GSD) | N | GM (GSD) | N | GM (GSD) | RB-UBI | RB-UBT | UBI-UBT | ||
Aromatic hydrocarbons | ||||||||||
benzene | 206 | 2.76 (2.31) | 71 | 3.12 (2.04) | 92 | 2.34 (1.93) | 0.014 | 0.084 | 0.238 | 0.005 |
ethyl-benzene | 207 | 2.39 (3.46) | 71 | 1.95 (3.02) | 92 | 1.55 (2.62) | 0.086 | – | – | – |
propyl-benzene, i- | 207 | 0.40 (3.08) | 71 | 0.38 (3.03) | 92 | 0.23 (2.32) | <0.001 | 0.829 | <0.001 | 0.002 |
naphthalene | 207 | 0.62 (3.00) | 71 | 0.72 (3.38) | 92 | 0.39 (2.97) | <0.001 | 0.293 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
styrene | 207 | 1.89 (2.95) | 71 | 1.41 (2.27) | 92 | 1.45 (2.09) | 0.023 | 0.133 | 0.040 | 0.722 |
xylene, m- | 207 | 4.48 (4.34) | 71 | 3.47 (3.50) | 92 | 2.73 (3.14) | 0.073 | – | – | – |
xylene, o- | 207 | 2.60 (3.86) | 71 | 1.87 (3.57) | 92 | 1.72 (3.02) | 0.048 | 0.185 | 0.084 | 0.837 |
xylene, p- | 207 | 2.08 (3.49) | 71 | 1.63 (3.43) | 92 | 1.29 (2.75) | 0.014 | 0.431 | 0.011 | 0.431 |
Aliphatic hydrocarbons | ||||||||||
hexane, n- | 207 | 2.68 (3.58) | 71 | 2.27 (3.91) | 92 | 2.31 (3.35) | 0.356 | – | – | – |
Terpenes | ||||||||||
limonene | 207 | 10.64 (4.41) | 71 | 10.82 (4.97) | 92 | 9.35 (3.74) | 0.608 | – | – | – |
pinene, β- | 207 | 4.00 (4.34) | 71 | 4.32 (5.69) | 92 | 3.13 (5.92) | 0.198 | – | – | – |
Esters of alcohols | ||||||||||
butoxypropanol | 207 | 2.11 (4.73) | 71 | 2.84 (5.11) | 92 | 1.57 (3.95) | 0.054 | – | – | – |
ethoxyethoxyethanol | 207 | 1.54 (3.57) | 71 | 1.22 (4.63) | 92 | 1.90 (2.93) | 0.171 | – | – | – |
Halocarbons | ||||||||||
dichlorobenzene, 1,4- | 207 | 0.31 (1.83) | 71 | 0.34 (1.90) | 92 | 0.30 (1.87) | 0.133 | – | – | – |
perchlorethylene | 207 | 0.20 (3.99) | 71 | 0.21 (4.28) | 92 | 0.22 (3.48) | 0.505 | – | – | – |
trichloroethylene | 207 | 0.27 (1.44) | 71 | 0.26 (1.26) | 92 | 0.28 (1.62) | 0.769 | – | – | – |
Other VOCs | ||||||||||
methylisothiazolinone | 121 | 1.25 (2.33) | 61 | 1.00 (2.18) | 50 | 1.13 (2.09) | 0.215 | – | – | – |
Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes | ||||||||||
formaldehyde | 185 | 13.50 (5.80) | 67 | 11.41 (6.47) | 93 | 9.56 (6.40) | 0.193 | – | – | – |
acetaldehyde | 182 | 11.63 (6.33) | 66 | 7.71 (5.75) | 90 | 8.56 (6.65) | 0.105 | – | – | – |
Other aldehydes | ||||||||||
tolualdehyde | 151 | 0.51 (1.34) | 55 | 0.50 (1.00) | 76 | 0.53 (1.53) | 0.671 | – | – | – |
Compound (µg/m3) | Log-Linear Regression Estimates | Relative Variation | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
b | Unlogged b | p-Value | GM | GM % | GV | GV % | |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | |||||||
benzene | 0.01 | 1.01 | 0.555 | – | – | – | – |
ethyl-benzene | −0.15 | −0.86 | <0.001 | 2.1 | −41.9% | 10.0 | −8.6% |
naphthalene | −0.04 | −0.96 | 0.293 | – | – | – | – |
styrene | −0.15 | −0.86 | <0.001 | 1.7 | −51.1% | 12.0 | −7.1% |
xylene, m- | −0.20 | −0.81 | <0.001 | 3.8 | −21.6% | 29.0 | −2.8% |
xylene, o- | −0.16 | −0.85 | <0.001 | 2.2 | −38.5% | 9.0 | −9.4% |
xylene, p- | −0.14 | −0.87 | <0.001 | 1.8 | −49.1% | 29.0 | −3.0% |
Aliphatic hydrocarbons | |||||||
hexane, n- | −0.25 | −0.78 | <0.001 | 2.5 | −31.1% | 8.0 | −9.7% |
Terpenes | |||||||
limonene | 0.07 | 1.07 | 0.129 | – | – | – | – |
pinene, β- | 0.04 | 1.04 | 0.447 | – | – | – | – |
Halocarbons | |||||||
dichlorobenzene, 1,4- | −0.01 | −0.99 | 0.670 | – | – | – | – |
perchlorethylene | −0.12 | −0.89 | 0.003 | 0.2 | −425.3% | <1.0 | −88.5% |
trichloroethylene | 0.01 | 1.01 | 0.206 | – | – | – | – |
Other VOCs | |||||||
methylisothiazolinone | −0.48 | −0.62 | <0.001 | 1.2 | −53.7% | <1.0 | −61.9% |
Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes | |||||||
formaldehyde | −0.28 | −0.75 | <0.001 | 11.9 | −6.3% | 30.0 | −2.5% |
acetaldehyde | −0.36 | −0.70 | <0.001 | 9.9 | −7.1% | 54.0 | −1.3% |
Concentration (µg/m3) | Cancer Risk | Non-Cancer Risk | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compound | IUR (m3/µg) | Excess Cases * | RfC (µg/m3) | Hazard Quotient | Target Organs and Processes | ||||
GM | 90th | GM | 90th | GM | 90th | ||||
Aromatic hydrocarbons | |||||||||
benzene | 2.7 | 8 | 2.9 × 10−5 | 79 | 232 | 60 | 0.0 | 0.1 | DEV, HAE, NER |
ethyl-benzene | 2.1 | 14.1 | 2.5 × 10−6 | 5 | 35 | – | – | – | – |
naphthalene | 0.6 | 1.5 | 2.6 × 10−4 | 148 | 390 | 9 | 0.1 | 0.2 | RES |
styrene | 1.7 | 5.5 | – | – | – | 900 | 0.0 | 0.0 | NER |
xylenes | 7.7 | 62 | – | – | – | 700 | 0.0 | 0.1 | NER, OPH, RES |
Aliphatic hydrocarbons | |||||||||
hexane, n- | 2.5 | 15.9 | – | – | – | 7000 | 0.0 | 0.0 | NER |
Halocarbons | |||||||||
dichlorobenzene, 1,4- | 0.3 | 1 | 1.1 × 10−5 | 3 | 11 | – | – | – | – |
perchlorethylene | 0.2 | 1 | 6.1 × 10−6 | 1 | 6 | – | – | – | – |
trichloroethylene | 0.3 | 0.2 | 2.0 × 10−6 | 1 | 0 | 600 | 0.0 | 0.0 | NER, OPH |
Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes | |||||||||
formaldehyde | 11.9 | 55.5 | 6.0 × 10−6 | 71 | 333 | 9 | 1.3 | 6.2 | NER |
acetaldehyde | 9.9 | 57.1 | 2.7 × 10−6 | 27 | 154 | – | – | – | – |
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Alvarez-Vaca, D.; Duca, R.C.; Borras-Santos, A.; Hardy, E.; Creta, M.; Eicher, C.; Wurth, L.; Vergison, A.; Van Nieuwenhuyse, A. Surveillance of Indoor Air Concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds in Luxembourgish Households. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 5467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095467
Alvarez-Vaca D, Duca RC, Borras-Santos A, Hardy E, Creta M, Eicher C, Wurth L, Vergison A, Van Nieuwenhuyse A. Surveillance of Indoor Air Concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds in Luxembourgish Households. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(9):5467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095467
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlvarez-Vaca, Daniel, Radu Corneliu Duca, Alicia Borras-Santos, Emilie Hardy, Matteo Creta, Carole Eicher, Laurence Wurth, Anne Vergison, and An Van Nieuwenhuyse. 2022. "Surveillance of Indoor Air Concentration of Volatile Organic Compounds in Luxembourgish Households" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 9: 5467. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095467