Awareness of Medical Radiologic Technologists of Ionizing Radiation and Radiation Protection
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- Gender
- Age group
- Do you have a family member of elementary school age or younger?
- Do you think that radiation exposure can cause deformities?
- If radiation exposure causes deformities, when do you think that exposure causes deformities?
- Do you think it is better to have an abortion if you are exposed to radiation during pregnancy, for example, during a stomach examination?
- Do you think your own exposure to radiation will affect your children (ages 0–15)?
- Do you think health effects occur when children under the age of 15 years are exposed to radiation?
- Do you believe that the genetic effects occur as a result of radiation exposure?
- Do you think that radiation exposure can cause cancer or leukemia?
- Do you think that genetic damage caused by radiation cannot be repaired (healed)?
- Do you think that genetic damage can be caused by anything other than radiation?
- If leukemia develops because of radiation exposure, how long do you think it will take to develop after exposure?
- If thyroid cancer is caused by radiation exposure, how long do you think it will take to develop after exposure?
- When do you think X-rays come out of the X-ray machine?
- What do you think happens to the X-rays emitted from an X-ray machine afterwards?
- Do you think there are health effects from exposure to radiation tests received in hospitals?
- Do you understand the three principles of external radiation protection?
- Do you know the half-life of radioactive materials?
- Do you think that when you are exposed to radiation from a CT scan, etc., that radiation remains in your body forever?
- Do you think there is exposure to natural radiation during normal times (when there are no nuclear accidents)?
- Do you think that our bodies also emit radiation?
- Do you think food or medical devices are ever being irradiated?
- Do you think that the effects on the body differ between natural and artificial radiation (e.g., medical exposure)?
- If radiation exposure (an effective dose) is equal, do you think that internal exposure has greater health effects than external exposure?
- If a deformed baby is born near a nuclear power plant 2 months after the accident, do you suspect that the accident has affected the baby?
- Do you not think that rice, vegetables, fish, etc. contain very small amounts of naturally occurring radioactive materials?
- Do you know the differences between radiation and radioactivity?
- Do you know that there are various types of radiation?
- Do you know the annual dose limits for radiation workers?
- Do you check your personal dosimeter reports yourself ?
- Do you know the content of your personal dosimetry report?
- Do you think the effects on the body are the same for a single radiation exposure of 100 mSv or for a total of multiple exposures of 100 mSv?
- Do you think that areas with higher natural radiation levels have higher cancer mortality rates?
- Do you think there will be health effects if the exposure dose exceeds 1 mSv/year?
- Do you know the stochastic effects of radiation exposure?
- Do you know the deterministic effects (tissue reactions) of radiation exposure?
- Do you know what a becquerel (unit of radiation) is?
- Do you know what a sievert (unit of radiation) is?
- Do you know the differences between sievert, millisievert, and micro sievert?
- Do you find it difficult to understand radiation?
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Data of Respondents
3.2. Questionnaire Items with Matched Response Selection Ratios
3.3. Questionnaire Items for Which No Significant Differences Were Found (Excluding Three Matched Items)
3.4. Questionnaire Items for Which Significant Differences Were Found (p < 0.05)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Health at a Glance 2015 OECD Indicators. Available online: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance_19991312 (accessed on 18 June 2022).
- United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Volume I. UNSCEAR 2008 Report Volume 1; UNSCEAR Publication: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation. UNSCEAR 2020/2021 Report Volume 1. Report to the General Assembly; United Nations Publication: New York, NY, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Nuclear Safety Research Association. Radiation in the Living Environment, 3rd ed.; Nuclear Safety Research Association: Tokyo, Japan, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- International Atomic Energy Agency. Lessons Learned from the JCO Nuclear Criticality Accident in Japan in 1999. Available online: http://www-ns.iaea.org/downloads/iec/tokaimura-report.pdf (accessed on 18 June 2022).
- Shibahara, S. The 2011 Tohoku earthquake and devastating tsunami. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2011, 223, 305–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Shibahara, S. Revisiting the March 11, 2011 earthquake and tsunami: Resilience and restoration. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2012, 226, 1–2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Yabe, H.; Suzuki, Y.; Mashiko, H.; Nakayama, Y.; Hisata, M.; Niwa, S.; Yasumura, S.; Yamashita, S.; Kamiya, K.; Abe, M. Revisiting the March 11, Psychological distress after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident: Results of a mental health and lifestyle survey through the Fukushima Health Management Survey in FY2011 and FY2012. Fukushima J. Med. Sci. 2014, 60, 57–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Leppold, C.; Ochi, S.; Nomura, S.; Murray, V. The Great East Japan Earthquake, Tsunamis, and Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Disaster: Lessons for Evidence Integration from a WADEM 2017 Presentation and Panel Discussion. Prehosp. Disaster Med. 2018, 33, 424–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suzuki, M.; Suzuki, H.; Ishiguro, H.; Saito, Y.; Watanabe, S.; Kozutsumi, T.; Sochi, Y.; Nishi, K.; Urushihara, Y.; Kino, Y.; et al. Correlation of radiocesium activity between muscle and peripheral blood of live cattle depending on presence or absence of radiocontamination in feed. Radiat. Res. 2019, 192, 589–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, L.; Inaba, Y.; Kanzaki, N.; Bekal, M.; Chida, K.; Moritake, T. Identification of potential biomarkers of radiation exposure in blood cells by capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sun, L.; Inaba, Y.; Sogo, Y.; Ito, A.; Bekal, M.; Chida, K.; Moritake, T. Total body irradiation causes a chronic decrease in antioxidant levels. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 6716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsujiguchi, T.; Sakamoto, M.; Koiwa, T.; Suzuki, Y.; Ogura, K.; Ito, K.; Yamanouchi, K.; Kashiwakura, I. A Simple Survey of the Preparation Situation for Resident’s Evacuation in Japanese Prefectures After the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Accident. Front. Public Health 2020, 8, 496716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Egawa, S. Progress of disaster medicine during ten years after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2021, 253, 159–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fujii, S.; Nonaka, S.; Nakayama, M. Use of medical information and digital services for self-empowerment before, during, and after a major disaster. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2021, 255, 183–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurita, N. Association of the Great East Japan Earthquake and the Daiichi Nuclear Disaster in Fukushima City, Japan, with Birth Rates. JAMA Netw. Open 2019, 2, e187455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yashima, S.; Chida, K. Effective Risk Communications through Personalized Consultations with Pregnant Women and Parents by Radiologic Technologists after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 2022, 256, 256–269. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chida, K.; Saito, H.; Otani, H.; Kohzuki, M.; Takahashi, S.; Yamada, S.; Shirato, K.; Zuguchi, M. Relationship between fluoroscopic time, dose-area product, body weight, and maximum radiation skin dose in cardiac interventional procedures. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2006, 186, 774–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chida, K.; Kato, M.; Kagaya, Y.; Zuguchi, M.; Saito, H.; Ishibashi, T.; Takahashi, S.; Yamada, S.; Takai, Y. Radiation dose and radiation protection for patients and physicians during interventional procedure. J. Radiat. Res. 2010, 51, 97–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Moritake, T.; Matsumaru, Y.; Takigawa, T.; Nishizawa, K.; Matsumura, A.; Tsuboi, K. Dose measurement on both patients and operators during neurointerventional procedures using photoluminescence glass dosimeters. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2008, 29, 1910–1917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kato, M.; Chida, K.; Moritake, T.; Sato, T.; Oosaka, H.; Toyoshima, H.; Zuguchi, M.; Abe, Y. Direct dose measurement on patient during percutaneous coronary intervention procedures using radiophotoluminescence glass dosimeters. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2017, 175, 31–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kato, M.; Chida, K.; Nakamura, M.; Toyoshima, H.; Terata, K.; Abe, Y. New real-time patient radiation dosimeter for use in radiofrequency catheter ablation. J. Radiat. Res. 2019, 60, 215–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haga, Y.; Chida, K.; Sota, M.; Kaga, Y.; Abe, M.; Inaba, Y.; Suzuki, M.; Meguro, T.; Zuguchi, M. Hybrid operating room system for the treatment of thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms: Evaluation of the radiation dose received by patients. Diagnostics 2020, 10, 846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inaba, Y.; Chida, K.; Murabayashi, Y.; Endo, M.; Otomo, K.; Zuguchi, M. An initial investigation of a wireless patient radiation dosimeter for use in interventional radiology. Radiol. Phys. Technol. 2020, 13, 321–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nemoto, M.; Chida, K. Reducing the breast cancer risk and radiation dose of radiography for scoliosis in children: A phantom study. Diagnostics 2020, 10, 753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kawauchi, S.; Chida, K.; Moritake, T.; Hamada, Y.; Yamada, S. Radioprotection of eye lens using protective material in neuro cone-beam computed tomography: Estimation of dose reduction rate and image quality. Phys. Med. 2021, 82, 192–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zuguchi, M.; Chida, K.; Taura, M.; Inaba, Y.; Ebata, A.; Yamada, S. Usefulness of non-lead aprons in radiation protection for physicians performing interventional procedures. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2008, 131, 531–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Chida, K.; Kaga, Y.; Haga, Y.; Kataoka, N.; Kumasaka, E.; Meguro, T.; Zuguchi, M. Occupational dose in interventional radiology procedures. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2013, 200, 138–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morishima, Y.; Chida, K.; Watanabe, H. Estimation of the dose of radiation received by patient and physician during a videofluoroscopic swallowing study. Dysphagia 2016, 31, 574–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morishima, Y.; Chida, K.; Meguro, T. Effectiveness of additional lead shielding to protect staff from scattering radiation during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography procedures. J. Radiat. Res. 2018, 59, 225–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haga, Y.; Chida, K.; Kimura, Y.; Yamada, S.; Sota, M.; Abe, M.; Kaga, Y.; Meguro, T.; Zuguchi, M. Radiation eye dose to medical staff during respiratory endoscopy under X-ray fluoroscopy. J. Radiat. Res. 2020, 61, 691–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ishii, H.; Chida, K.; Satsurai, K.; Haga, Y.; Kaga, Y.; Abe, M.; Inaba, Y.; Zuguchi, M. A phantom study to determine the optimal placement of eye dosemeters on interventional cardiology staff. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2019, 185, 409–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koenig, A.; Maas, J.; Viniol, S.; Etzel, R.; Fiebich, M.; Thomas, R.; Mahnken, A. Scatter radiation reduction with a radiation-absorbing pad in interventional radiology examinations. Eur. J. Radiol. 2020, 132, 109245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Endo, M.; Haga, Y.; Sota, M.; Tanaka, A.; Otomo, K.; Murabayashi, Y.; Abe, M.; Kaga, Y.; Inaba, Y.; Suzuki, M.; et al. Evaluation of novel X-ray protective eyewear in reducing the eye dose to interventional radiology physicians. J. Radiat. Res. 2021, 62, 414–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fujibuchi, T. Radiation protection education using virtual reality for the visualisation of scattered distributions during radiological examinations. J. Radiol. Prot. 2021, 41, S317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Inaba, Y.; Hitachi, S.; Watanuki, M.; Chida, K. Occupational radiation dose to eye lenses in CT-guided interventions using MDCT-fluoroscopy. Diagnostics 2021, 11, 646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsubara, K.; Yoshida, S.; Hirosawa, A.; Chusin, T.; Furukawa, Y. Characterization of small dosimeters used for measurement of eye lens dose for medical staff during fluoroscopic examination. Diagnostics 2021, 11, 150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morishima, Y.; Chida, K.; Katahira, Y. The effectiveness of additional lead-shielding drape and low pulse rate fluoroscopy in protecting staff from scatter radiation during cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT). Jpn. J. Radiol. 2019, 37, 95–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- International Commission on Radiological Protection. The 2007 recommendations of the international commission on radiological protection. In ICRP Publication 103; Elsevier: Exeter, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- International Commission on Radiological Protection. Education and training in radiological protection for diagnostic and interventional procedures. In ICRP Publication 113; Elsevier: Exeter, UK, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radiological protection in cardiology. In ICRP Publication 120; Elsevier: Exeter, UK, 2013. [Google Scholar]
- Occupational radiological protection in interventional procedures. In ICRP Publication 139; SAGE: London, UK, 2018.
- The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan. Available online: https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/05-Shingikai-10801000-Iseikyoku-Soumuka/0000200803.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2022).
- Kohzaki, M.; Ootsuyama, A.; Moritake, T.; Abe, T.; Kubo, T.; Okazaki, R. What have we learned from a questionnaire survey of citizens and doctors both inside and outside Fukushima? Survey comparison between 2011 and 2013. J. Radiol. Prot. 2015, 35, N1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Orita, M.; Hayashida, N.; Nakayama, Y.; Shinkawa, T.; Urata, H.; Fukushima, Y.; Endo, Y.; Yamashita, S.; Takamura, N. Bipolarization of Risk Perception about the Health Effects of Radiation in Residents after the Accident at Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0129227. Available online: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0129227 (accessed on 15 November 2022). [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yoshida, M.; Iwamoto, S.; Okahisa, R.; Kishida, S.; Sakama, M.; Honda, E. Knowledge and risk perception of radiation for Japanese nursing students after the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant disaster. Nurse Educ. Today 2020, 94, 104552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goula, A.; Chatzis, A.; Stamouli, M.-A.; Kelesi, M.; Kaba, E.; Brilakis, E. Assessment of Health Professionals’ Attitudes on Radiation Protection Measures. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 13380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nagatomi, M.; Yamaguchi, T.; Shinkawa, T.; Urata, H.; Ide, T.; Oishi, K.; Sato, N.; Orita, M.; Takamura, N. Knowledge on radiation among nurses working at middle-sized hospitals in Nagasaki prefecture. J. Radiol. Nurs. Soc. Jpn. 2020, 8, 2. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar]
- Nagatomi, M.; Yamaguchi, T.; Shinkawa, T.; Taira, Y.; Urata, H.; Orita, M.; Takamura, N. Radiation education for nurses working at middle-sized hospitals in Japan. J. Radiat. Res. 2019, 60, 818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lee, R.; Chu, W.; Graham, C.; Rainer, T.; Ahuja, A. Knowledge of radiation exposure in common radiological investigations: A comparison between radiologists and non-radiologists. Emerg. Med. J. 2012, 29, 306–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yurt, A.; Çavuşoğlu, B.; Günay, T. Evaluation of Awareness on Radiation Protection and Knowledge About Radiological Examinations in Healthcare Professionals Who Use Ionized Radiation at Work. Mol. Imaging Radionucl. Ther. 2014, 23, 48–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Morishima, Y.; Chida, K.; Katahira, Y.; Seto, H.; Chiba, H.; Tabayashi, K. Need for radiation safety education for interventional cardiology staff, especially nurses. Acta Cardiol. 2016, 71, 151–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rehani, M.; Berris, T. International Atomic Energy Agency study with referring physicians on patient radiation exposure and its tracking: A prospective survey using a web-based questionnaire. BMJ Open 2012, 2, e001425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Shabani, F.; Hasanzadeh, H.; Emadi, A.; Mirmohammadkhani, M.; Rajabi, A.; Abedelahi, A.; Bokharaeian, M.; Masoumi, H.; Seifi, D.; Khani, T.; et al. Radiation Protection Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) in Interventional Radiology. Oman Med. J. 2018, 33, 141–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Partap, A.; Raghunanan, R.; White, K.; Seepaul, T. Knowledge and practice of radiation safety among health professionals in Trinidad. SAGE Open Med. 2019, 7, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bolbol, S.; Zaitoun, M.; El-Magd, S.; Mohammed, N. Knowledge and Practice of Healthcare Workers in Diagnostic Radiology Department Towards Ionizing Radiation. Mal. J. Med. Health Sci. 2021, 17, 224–231. [Google Scholar]
- Yashima, S.; Chida, K.; Ohta, Y.; Kaneko, Y.; Shibuya, D.; Hisamichi, S. Questionnaire Regarding Ionizing Radiation among Screening Agency Staffs in Japan. Available online: https://epos.myesr.org/poster/esr/ecr2015/C-1182 (accessed on 15 November 2022).
- International commission on radiological protection. Avoidance of radiation injuries from medical interventional procedures. In ICRP Publication 85; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Kato, M.; Chida, K.; Sato, T.; Oosaka, H.; Tosa, T.; Munehisa, M.; Kadowaki, K. The necessity of follow-up for radiation skin injuries in patients after percutaneous coronary interventions: Radiation skin injuries will often be overlooked clinically. Acta Radiol. 2012, 53, 1040–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vano, E.; Gonzalez, L.; Fernández, J.; Fernández, J.; Haskal, Z. Eye lens exposure to radiation in interventional suites: Caution is warranted. Radiology 2008, 248, 945–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Japan Network for Research and Information on Medical Exposure. Japan DRLs 2015. Available online: http://www.radher.jp/J-RIME/report/DRLhoukokusyoEng.pdf (accessed on 15 November 2022).
- Matsunaga, Y.; Kawaguchi, A.; Kobayashi, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Asada, Y.; Minami, K.; Suzuki, S.; Chida, K. Patient exposure during plain radiography and mammography in Japan in 1974–2014. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2017, 176, 347–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsunaga, Y.; Chida, K.; Kondo, Y.; Kobayashi, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Minami, K.; Suzuki, S.; Asada, Y. Diagnostic reference levels and achievable doses for common computed tomography examinations: Results from the Japanese nationwide dose survey. Br. J. Radiol. 2019, 92, 20180290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haga, Y.; Chida, K.; Kaga, Y.; Sota, M.; Meguro, T.; Zuguchi, M. Occupational eye dose in interventional cardiology procedures. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kato, M.; Chida, K.; Ishida, T.; Sasaki, F.; Toyoshima, H.; Oosaka, H.; Terata, K.; Abe, Y.; Kinoshita, T. Occupational radiation exposure dose of the eye in department of cardiac arrhythmia physician. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2019, 187, 361–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kato, M.; Chida, K.; Munehisa, M.; Sato, T.; Inaba, Y.; Suzuki, M.; Zuguchi, M. Non-lead protective aprons for the protection of interventional radiology physicians from radiation exposure in clinical settings: An initial study. Diagnostics 2021, 11, 1613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chida, K. What are useful methods to reduce occupational radiation exposure among radiological medical workers, especially for interventional radiology personnel? Radiol. Phys. Technol. 2022, 15, 101–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sato, T.; Eguchi, Y.; Yamazaki, C.; Hino, T.; Saida, T.; Chida, K. Development of a New Radiation Shield for the Face and Neck of IVR Physicians. Bioengineering 2022, 9, 354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morishima, Y.; Chida, K.; Meguro, T.; Hirota, M.; Chiba, H.; Fukuda, H. Lens equivalent dose of staff during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: Dose comparison using two types of dosemeters. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 2022, 198, 1368–1376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matsuzaki, S.; Moritake, T.; Sun, L.; Morota, K.; Nagamoto, K.; Nakagami, K.; Kuriyama, T.; Hitomi, G.; Kajiki, S.; Kunugita, N. The Effect of Pre-Operative Verbal Confirmation for Interventional Radiology Physicians on Their Use of Personal Dosimeters and Personal Protective Equipment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 16825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Item No. | p-Value | Item No. | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
4 | 0.028 | 26 | 0.016 |
5 | 0.0006 | 28 | 0.015 |
6 | 0.0005 | 30 | 0.039 |
7 | 0.013 | 31 | 0.036 |
9 | 0.003 | 32 | 0.013 |
10 | 0.04 | 34 | 0.003 |
11 | 0.04 | 35 | 0.005 |
13 | 0.0005 | 36 | 0.004 |
14 | 0.0008 | 37 | 0.002 |
17 | 0.037 | 38 | 0.012 |
19 | 0.033 | 39 | 0.01 |
22 | 0.0058 | 40 | 0.024 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Yashima, S.; Chida, K. Awareness of Medical Radiologic Technologists of Ionizing Radiation and Radiation Protection. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010497
Yashima S, Chida K. Awareness of Medical Radiologic Technologists of Ionizing Radiation and Radiation Protection. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(1):497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010497
Chicago/Turabian StyleYashima, Sachiko, and Koichi Chida. 2023. "Awareness of Medical Radiologic Technologists of Ionizing Radiation and Radiation Protection" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1: 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010497