1.1. Educational Coexistence
In recent decades, school coexistence has been the cause of growing concern in the educational world, mainly due to the rise in conflicting situations such as bullying and cyberbullying. These unfortunate events have generated in teachers, families and professionals a special awareness and concern. As a consequence, specific programs have been implemented in schools with subsequent detailed analyses looking into the various variables of the causes and consequences of this phenomenon [
1,
2,
3].
The first relevant studies emerged during the 1990s, with the publication of the Delors Report, proposed by UNESCO, which establishes as one of the four fundamental pillars of education, “Learning to live together, learning to live with others” [
4] (p. 6). It recognises the importance of fostering school coexistence in order to achieve a quality education and developing social skills in students that allow them to resolve conflicts, participate in common projects and respect diversity. Since then, the study of school coexistence has spread to many countries in Europe and America, giving rise to different research projects focussing on schools [
5].
However, there is currently no single definition of the concept of coexistence, resulting in confusion in the absence of a clear approach to help guide research. In English, the term “coexistence” refers to the positive and proactive interaction between the different educational agents in schools [
6].
Carbajal [
7] includes in her definition the term equity, in terms of equal opportunities. This author argues that schools with a greater social and academic gap tend to report higher levels of school violence. It therefore follows that the promotion of equity is essential for the achievement of better coexistence in the classroom. However, all these authors concur that the term “coexistence” is extremely broad and highly complex, both theoretically and practically, as a result of its great dynamism [
8].
In line with UNESCO’s recommendations, Hirmas and Carranza [
9] underline three main dimensions that must be taken into account when considering school coexistence: inclusion, democracy and peace. The first of these concerns diversity, equal opportunities and collaboration. Democracy is related to participation in school life, conflict resolution based on dialogue, compliance with rules and respect for values. Finally, peaceful coexistence guarantees the common good, developing trust in others and in the school [
10]. Other authors [
11] establish integral education, student autonomy, coherence between discourses and practices, the appropriate approach to conflicts, the family–school relationship, and the care of the teaching team as key factors for school coexistence.
For their part, Fierro-Evans and Carbajal-Padilla [
5] propose an indicator of the climate of school coexistence by assessing three dimensions: an environment of respect (respectful treatment among all members of the community), a structured environment (existence of clear rules and limits, known, demanded and respected by all) and a safe environment (degree of prevention and security against physical, psychological or verbal violence).
On the contrary, a dysfunctional coexistence in schools can give rise to psychosocial problems in students, worse school performance, increased relational problems between family and school and loss of student self-esteem [
12,
13]. Therefore, it is essential for all educational agents to actively foster coexistence and the school environment, with the aim of minimizing these consequences.
1.2. Bullying and Cyberbullying in Schools
A highly relevant factor that negatively affects school coexistence is the emergence of violence [
14]. This phenomenon can be defined as the use of any physical, psychological, or social strategy intended to cause harm to another individual [
15]. In the educational context, there are numerous types of violence, two of them being particularly serious: bullying and cyberbullying [
16].
The term bullying was first defined by Olweus [
17] as a type of interpersonal violence exercised between students, characterized by the intentionality of harming another defenceless student, the inequality of power between victim and aggressor, the repeated execution of the aggression and the creation of a dyadic relationship of dominance and submission between the students involved. Violence can be committed in a variety of ways, including all types of physical, verbal, psychological, emotional and social abuse of the victim. The most common physical aggressions are kicks, shoves, blows and beatings. As for verbal violence, insults, humiliations, or the use of derogatory names to call the victim are the most common offences. Other forms of abuse, such as social isolation, rejection, the spreading of rumours and marginalization are also included [
18].
At present, the great advance of technologies has made it easier for students to access new forms of communication that are much more immediate and effective. Despite the many benefits that these advances bring, the misuse of electronic devices can lead to the emergence of other forms of violence [
2]. Recent research has revealed a steady growth in a type of bullying conducted through electronic means among minors, which is referred to as cyberbullying [
19]. This type of harassment presents similar characteristics to more traditional bullying, but with the difference that it occurs in digital contexts such as social networks, mobile phones, or even online games. This type of violence gives the aggressor greater control over the victim thanks to easy access to technology, the greater scope of dissemination and the possibility of remaining anonymous. In addition, cyberbullying can occur at any time and place, reaching a large number of viewers without the need to establish physical contact [
20,
21]. As a result, the victim often feels helpless and anxious, as sometimes they do not know the identity of their aggressor and do not have the necessary knowledge to be able to act when faced with this harassment [
15].
Some manifestations of cyberbullying can be the publication of private images, the creation of false profiles, impersonation, spreading defamations of the victim, stalking, password theft, persecution on social networks, violation of privacy, exclusion and provocation. At present, these actions have legal consequences under criminal law, both for cyberbullying perpetrators and witnesses [
15].
With the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous studies have revealed an exponential growth in cyberbullying cases and, as children increasingly access electronic devices earlier, a marked increase in younger students being involved [
21,
22].
In relation to the roles that comprise a situation of bullying or cyberbullying, we can distinguish the roles of victim and aggressor, although there are also witnesses or spectators who can be neutral or be in favour of the aggressors or the victims [
23]. All of them participate directly or indirectly in the situation of harassment, even though they may not be aware of the consequences of their actions [
24]. Furthermore, it has been observed that there is a relationship, and sometimes overlap and continuity, between the profiles of victims and bullies, especially in the online context. Victims and cyber-victims often choose to respond to their aggressors online, thus also becoming cyber-aggressors [
25].
1.3. The TEI Program for the Prevention of School Bullying
There are numerous prevention and intervention programs and projects against this type of violence, focused on different areas which are implemented in schools [
26,
27]. However, there is limited scientific evidence regarding the validity of these school bullying prevention programs [
28,
29], posing new challenges and opportunities in the development of these programs [
30]. Some of the most internationally prominent are the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program [
17], Pikas [
31], ABC Program [
32], Kiva [
33], Be-Prox [
34], Additionally, and Tutoring Program Between Peers-TEI, [
35].
The TEI program stands out as being the most implemented in Spain, although it has also been implemented in other countries, with a large amount of subsequent scientific research to measure its effects [
36]. It is a prevention program through peer-to-peer emotional tutoring aimed at improving coexistence and preventing school violence and cyberbullying in schools. The program involves the entire educational community, being essential to the collaboration and commitment of students, teachers, non-teaching staff and families [
36,
37].
As described by the author of the program [
35], the TEI program is based on three main theoretical pillars: the theory of ecological systems by Urie Bronfenbrenner [
38], the emotional education of Salovey and Mayer together with Goleman [
39,
40], and the positive psychology of Seligman [
41], through the reproduction of positive and helpful models. The first of the pillars refers to the influence that the environment has on the cognitive, moral and relational development of the human being. The second focuses on students’ skills to understand, use and manage their own emotions and those of others, especially for conflict resolution. The latter seeks to guide education toward happiness and optimism, placing the student at the centre of the learning process. It has been demonstrated that the development of socioemotional skills contributes to the prevention of bullying and cyberbullying in schools [
42,
43]. The main objectives of this program are to raise awareness and make the entire educational community more alert to bullying and cyberbullying, as well as facilitate integration, create references from older tutors to provide security, empower students, compensate for the differences in power between the victim and the bully and develop a network of TEI centres that can share experiences and good practices [
44].
For the development of the TEI program in educational centres, students are assigned a tutor who is two years above them at the same school. In the case of secondary education, 3rd-grade students are 1st-grade tutors, and 4th-grade students are 2nd-grade tutors. The tutors always take part voluntarily and are offered training in awareness, empathy, empowerment and individual and group commitment to promote the prevention of bullying in the school and help the younger students seeking help suffering from cases of violence [
44]. This program focuses on the training of students so that they themselves are the ones who resolve conflicts in an appropriate way, avoiding violent behaviour. The established mentoring model focuses on developing cognitive, psychological, and, above all, emotional competences in students related to cooperation and teamwork. The TEI program “seeks to foster satisfactory peer relationships in which respect and tolerance prevail, encouraging the development of resilient tools for conflict resolution among students, these being the main elements of the program’s approach” [
45] (p. 77).
The TEI program uses, as a practical basis for conflict resolution, a double triangle of intervention, in which the victim of bullying informs their tutor, and together, they seek a solution through dialogue. When the student-tutor fails to resolve the conflict, the victim’s tutor talks to the tutor of the student who has caused the violent situation, seeking a solution to the problem together. In cases where a solution cannot be found, the tutors ask the program coordinator (teacher) to help resolve the situation [
35].
Regarding the sequencing of the implementation process, the program consists of six distinct phases: sensitization, approval, training, development, evaluation, and improvement proposals. First, the educational centre is contacted in order to raise awareness of the importance of the program. Subsequently, the educational project is approved by the school´s management team. Thirdly, teachers, students and families receive training on bullying and its consequences, are presented with the project, and are encouraged to actively take part. Students who voluntarily wish to become tutors receive more specific training on the approaches and actions to be developed, with an accreditation card being issued upon completion of the training sessions. In the fourth phase, the tutors are assigned to the younger students and activities are carried out to foster a link between them and ensure the good use of formal and informal tutorials. In the fifth phase, at the end of each term, the teaching staff and students evaluate the effectiveness of the program. Finally, in the sixth phase, an annual final report is made, and proposals for improvement are evaluated [
35,
36].
Previous studies have shown that 95% of the schools that have implemented the TEI program have experienced an improvement in coexistence and school climate. In addition, class expulsions are reduced by 40%, school absenteeism by 26%, and some variables, such as performance and students’ self-esteem, improve [
37,
46]. Another more recent study [
36] reports a fall in physical assaults by 52.1%, in verbal harassment by 28.8% and in cyberbullying by 28.4%. In addition, cooperation between students was improved by 28.2% and the social integration of students by 18.1%.
However, the scientific evidence of the TEI program has, to date, only been analysed in schools that have implemented the program and in very specific regions. Therefore, we consider it necessary to carry out a comparative study that allows for the observation of the differences in coexistence, bullying and cyberbullying between the centres in which the TEI program is implemented and those where the prevention program is not carried out in order to answer the following question: Are there significant differences in coexistence, bullying and cyberbullying between centres that have the TEI program and centres that have not implemented the TEI program?
Based on the demonstrated benefits of the program and the results of previous research, it is hypothesized that the educational centres that follow the TEI program enjoy better coexistence and lower rates of bullying and cyberbullying.
With the interest of deepening knowledge on the effectiveness of the TEI program for improving the coexistence of schools and their ability to reduce bullying and cyberbullying, the aim of this research is to achieve the following specific objectives:
- -
To observe the existing and emerging relations between the different factors involved in educational coexistence.
- -
To compare the coexistence relationships among students in educational centres that are implementing the TEI program to those that do not.
- -
To verify the relationships that are established between the main roles involved in bullying and cyberbullying (victims and bullies).
- -
To compare the incidence of bullying and cyberbullying between TEI centres and non-TEI centres.